A Summary of the
Research on the Effects of Test
Accommodations: 2005-2006
Technical Report 47
April L. Zenisky
Stephen G. Sireci
Center for Educational Assessment
University of Massachusetts Amherst
August 2007
All rights reserved. Any or all
portions of this document may be reproduced and distributed
without prior permission, provided the source is cited as:
Zenisky, A. L., & Sireci, S. G. (2007). A
summary of the research on the effects of test accommodations:
2005-2006 (Technical Report 47). Minneapolis, MN: University of
Minnesota, National Center on Educational Outcomes.
Table of Contents
Executive Summary
Overview
Results
Research Findings
Discussion and Implications for Future
Research
References
Appendix A: Research Purposes
Appendix B: Research Characteristics
Appendix C: Assessment/Instrument
Characteristics
Appendix D: Participant and Sample
Characteristics
Appendix E: Accommodations Studied
Appendix F: Research Findings
Appendix G: Limitations and Future
Research
Executive Summary
Six years have
elapsed since the passage of the No
Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (Public
Law 107-110), and among its
effects–principally on state
accountability measures but also across
other testing contexts from college
admissions and professional
credentialing to diagnostic/intelligence
assessment, classroom evaluation, and
beyond–is an increasing convergence of
longtime policy and psychometric
discussions about the use of various
test accommodations and score
interpretations from accommodated and
non-accommodated administrations. At the
same time, much work remains. The
purpose of this report is to provide an
update on the state of the research on
testing accommodations as well as to
identify promising areas of research to
further clarify and enhance
understanding of current and emerging
issues. In 2005 and 2006, 32 published
research studies on the topic of testing
accommodations were found. Among the
main points:
Purpose:
The majority of the research
included in this review sought
to evaluate the comparability of
test scores when assessments
were administered with and
without accommodations. The
second most common purpose for
research was to report on
current accommodations practices
(both in general and for
populations exhibiting specific
disabilities).
Types of
assessments, content areas:
Math and reading were the most
common content areas included in
the 2005-2006 research, and a
wide variety of assessment types
were used in these studies.
Among academic measures, state
criterion-referenced tests were
common, as were miscellaneous
intelligence and cognitive
measures. Some studies also
involved instruments developed
for research purposes using
publicly released items from
various large-scale assessments
such as the National Assessment
of Educational Progress (NAEP),
the Programme for International
Student Assessment (PISA), and
state tests.
Participants:
Studies ranged from fewer than
ten participants to several that
involved tens of thousands of
students, and spanned a range of
grade levels from K-12 to
college/university students, as
well as one study that involved
adult education.
Disabilities
and accommodations: Learning
disabilities were the most
common disabilities exhibited by
participants in the considered
research, accounting for nearly
half of the studies. Extended
time (alone and bundled with
other accommodations) was the
single most studied
accommodation, but oral
accommodations (such as
read-aloud and audiocassette
presentation) were also
considered in multiple studies,
as was computerized
administration.
Research
design: Over 70% of the
studies reported primary data
collection on the part of the
researchers, rather than drawing
on existing archival data sets.
Almost half of the studies
involved experimental or
quasi-experimental designs.
Researchers also drew on survey
techniques and carried out
literature meta-analyses.
Findings:
Most of the oral presentation
and timing accommodations
empirically tested were found to
have positive effects on scores,
although some studies reported
no effects for these
accommodations. Among studies of
the perception of different
accommodations, researchers
indicated that certain
accommodations are more
prevalent with some populations,
that teacher training can affect
accommodations practices in
classrooms, and that what
student Individualized Education
Programs (IEPs) call for in
terms of testing accommodations
are not always the same as what
ultimately is provided or what
is used in instruction.
Limitations:
Researchers often cited small
sample size as well as a general
lack of diversity as primary
limitations of their research.
Methodological issues relating
to how accommodations were
operationalized or
experimentally implemented were
also mentioned.
Directions
for future research: A
number of promising suggestions
were noted, particularly with
respect to varying or improving
on research methods with respect
to testing for the effects of
specific accommodations and
improving test development
practices to reduce the need for
accommodations. In many cases,
researchers also found the
results from their current
studies raised many suggestions
for further investigation, such
as concurrent validity studies
using other measures.
Our analysis across
the studies identified a number of
promising trends as well as
opportunities for further advancing both
research and practice. The focus across
these studies on the use and effects of
testing accommodations at different ages
from elementary and secondary to
post-secondary and adult education
signals the importance of looking at
differences in accommodations practices
in different testing contexts, although
increased diversity among research
participants with respect to
socioeconomic status or race/ethnicity
is still needed.
Although many of the
studies reported that accommodations use
had some positive effect on test scores,
variations across studies in the
operational definitions of those
accommodations does challenge the extent
to which findings can be generalized
across studies. Furthermore, even though
much work is being done, another
challenge for research is to construct
true experiments to assess the effects
of accommodations use on test scores and
their consequences for students with and
without disabilities alike.
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Overview
Although the
"standardized" in standardized testing
may have multiple connotations, positive
and negative alike, the term
standardized is often described as a way
to promote fairness in assessment by way
of maintaining consistency in all
aspects of test administration across
test-takers. That said, according to the
Common Core of Data from the National
Center for Education Statistics, in the
2004-2005 school year (the most recent
year for which these data are available)
nearly 6 million of 48.7 million
students in the United States had
individualized education programs (IEPs)
(National Center for Education
Statistics, 2006). In many cases the
disabilities that prompt these IEPs make
it difficult for many students to
perform to their full potential on tests
under standard conditions, and so while
not an exact barometer of test
accommodation use, these statistics do
indicate that on average across the
states about 13-14% of elementary and
secondary students have had teams of
educators and specialists individually
define their specific needs in
instruction or assessment. One approach
to assessment cannot always fit all
because test-takers across many testing
contexts often vary by more than just
proficiency, due in part to the presence
of one or more disabilities that can
impact how they interact with and
complete tasks in a testing situation.
The use of test accommodations is often
a necessity, as is the need for
research-based policy to guide practice.
The Standards for
Educational and Psychological Testing
(American Educational Research
Association, American Psychological
Association, National Council on
Measurement in Education, 1999) define
an accommodation as "an action taken in
response to a determination that an
individual’s disability requires a
departure from an established testing
protocol" (p. 101). More recently,
researchers have referred to the
accommodations as the means for
eliminating construct-irrelevant
variance, in other words, the variance
associated with an extraneous feature of
test administration (Fuchs, Fuchs,
Eaton, Hamlett, & Karns, 2000). Others
have concentrated on the notion that
accommodations are test changes that
maintain the validity of the scores that
result from the testing process, by
remaining true to the construct
assessed. Numerous research approaches
have been pursued to check that on the
validity of scores produced under
accommodated conditions (Thurlow,
McGrew, Tindal, Thompson, Ysseldyke,
Elliott, 2000; Sireci, Scarpati, & Li,
2005; Tindal, 1998), including single
subject designs, "boost" studies, and
"differential boost" studies.
Technical assistance
providers and researchers have
categorized and listed accommodations in
several ways. For example, more than 70
accommodations in 8 categories
(motivation, assistance prior to
testing, scheduling, setting,
directions, assistance during testing,
use equipment/adaptive technology, and
changes in format) were identified by
Elliott, Kratochwill, and Schulte (1998)
and placed into a checklist that they
produced for IEP teams to use. Summaries
of state policies show that there are
probably hundreds of individual
accommodations that can be identified,
and that IEP teams have the option of
identifying additional accommodations
for individual students, if needed (see,
for example, Lazarus, Thurlow, Lail,
Eisenbraun, & Kato, 2006). The specific
accommodations that are used, how they
are implemented, and the extent to which
the scores from tests administered under
standard and non-standard
administrations are comparable are among
the issues that are at the forefront of
many conversations in many testing
contexts today, including the states
that must report on academic achievement
for students with IEPs as part of No
Child Left Behind (NCLB).
NCLB has placed a
strong policy emphasis on students with
disabilities by requiring that states
focus on the performance of subgroups,
both during their participation in state
assessments and in national assessments.
This focus is played out by requiring
that the scores of subgroups be
disaggregated and reported separately,
as well as within the data reports of
all other students, and that for
accountability, they be treated in the
same way–factored into accountability
both separately and as part of the total
group (and any other groups to which
they belong). Beyond that, with new
regulations (Federal Register,
April 9, 2007), states must prepare
accommodation guidelines that "identify
the accommodations for each assessment
that do not invalidate the score" as
well as prepare IEP teams to "select,
for each assessment, only those
accommodations that do not invalidate
the score" (Section 300.160(b)(2)).
Within this context, the need for
contributions to policy and psychometric
understanding of the issues surrounding
the use of test accommodations from
researchers who are empirically studying
these issues is at a critical point.
The purpose of this
document is to provide a synthesis of
the research on test accommodations
published in 2005 and 2006. The research
described here encompasses empirical
studies of score comparability and
validity studies as well as
investigations into accommodations use
and perceptions of their effectiveness.
Taken together, the current research
explores many of the issues surrounding
test accommodations practices in both
breadth and depth. Insofar as reporting
on the findings of current research
studies is a primary goal of this
analysis, a second goal is to also
identify areas requiring continued
investigation in the future.
Review Process
To complete this
review of the accommodations research
published in 2005 and 2006, seven
research databases were consulted,
including Educational Resources
Information Center (ERIC), PsychInfo,
Academic Search Premier, Digital
Dissertations, Education Complete,
Expanded Academic ASAP, Educational
Abstracts, and ISI Web of Science. In
addition, two Web search engines were
also used (Google and Google Scholar).
Several other resources for research
articles that were also searched for
relevant publications were the archives
of Behavioral Research and Teaching (BRT)
at the University of Oregon (http://brt.uoregon.edu/),
the Educational Policy Analysis Archives
(EPAA; http://epaa.asu.edu), the
National Center for Research on
Evaluation, Standards, and Student
Testing (CRESST; http://www.cse.ucla.edu/),
the Wisconsin Center for Educational
Research (WCER; http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/testacc),
and the Center for the Study of
Assessment Validity and Evaluation
(C-SAVE; http://www.c-save.umd.edu/index.html).
Finally, hand
searches of relevant journals were
conducted to ensure that no relevant
articles were missed. Journals searched
included: Applied Measurement in
Education; British Journal of Special
Education; Educational and Psychological
Measurement; Educational Measurement:
Issues and Practice; Educational
Psychologist; Educational Psychology;
Educational Researcher; Exceptional
Children; Journal of Educational
Measurement; Journal of Learning
Disabilities; Journal of Special
Education; The Journal of Technology,
Learning, and Assessment; Journal of
Psychoeducational Assessment; Practical
Assessment, Research, and Evaluation;
Review of Educational Research; and
School Psychology Review.
Presentations from professional
conferences were not searched or
included in this review, based on a
preference to include only that research
which (1) would be accessible to readers
wanting to access the articles, and (2)
had gone through the level of peer
review typically required for
publication in professional journals.
Within each of these
research databases and publications
archives, a sequence of search terms was
used. Terms searched for this review
were:
- accommodation(s)
- test and
assess (also tests,
testing, assessing, assessment)
accommodation(s)
- test and
assess (also tests,
testing, assessing, assessment)
changes
- test and
assess (also tests,
testing, assessing, assessment)
modification(s)
- test and
assess (also tests,
testing, assessing, assessment)
adaptation (adapt, adapting)
- student(s)
with disability (disabilities)
test and assess (also
tests, testing, assessing,
assessment)
-
standards-based testing
accommodations
- large-scale
testing accommodations
The research
documents from these searches were then
considered for inclusion in this review
with respect to several criteria. The
decision was made to focus only on
research published or defended in
doctoral dissertations in 2005 and 2006.
The scope of the research was limited to
investigations of accommodations for
regular assessment (hence, articles
specific to alternate assessments,
accommodations for instruction or
learning, and universal design in
general were not part of this review).
In addition, research involving English
language learners (ELLs) were only
included if the focus was ELLs with
disabilities.
Top of page
Results
As a result of the
search efforts, a total of 32 studies
published between January 2005 and
December 2006 met the criteria and are
summarized in this review. Of these 32
studies, all but 6 appeared in refereed
journals. Five of the six not from
refereed journals were doctoral
dissertations, and one was a published
technical report. Seventeen of the
studies involved an analysis of examinee
responses to test questions in some way;
nine used survey, interview,
observation, or case study techniques to
report on the use of test
accommodations; and six involved
reviewing literature and case law on
testing accommodations or accommodations
policies. A complete list of the
research (researchers and full citations
for each study included in this review)
is given in the References.
Purposes of the Research
Several primary
purposes were identified in the
accommodations research published in
2005-2006 (see Table 1). Most commonly,
these studies sought to investigate the
effects of one or more test
accommodations on students or items.
This was the focus of over 40% of the
studies. All but 4 of these 14
comparison studies involved students
both with and without disabilities; 2 of
the remaining studies looked at the
results of assessments under standard
and nonstandard administration
conditions for students with
disabilities only (Baker, 2006; Dolan,
Hall, Bannerjee, Chun, & Strangman,
2005), and 2 varied test administration
formats among students without
disabilities (Higgins, Russell, &
Hoffman, 2005; Horkay, Bennett, Allen,
Kaplan, & Yan, 2006).
Table 1. Purposes of
Reviewed Research
Purpose |
Number of Studies |
Compare scores from
standard/nonstandard
administration conditions |
14 |
Across students with and
without disabilities (10
studies) |
|
Only students with
disabilities (2 studies) |
|
Only students without
disabilities (2 studies) |
|
Report on implementation
practices and test accommodation
use |
10 |
Review test accommodation
literature for effects on
scores, assessment practices |
3 |
Identify predictors of
accommodation use |
3 |
Study and/or compare perceptions
of accommodation use |
2 |
Total |
32 |
A full listing of the
studies by purpose category including
statements of purpose is provided in
Appendix A.
The next most
prevalent purpose in the reviewed
research, involving 10 studies, was
reporting survey, interview, or
literature review results of
accommodations use in different
educational contexts, focusing
specifically on implementation practices
and institutional factors relating to
accommodations use. Three of these
studies were literature reviews of
previous accommodations studies with
respect to the effects of test
accommodations on scores and assessment
practices, and another three looked at
ways to identify the need to use
accommodations (Antalek, 2005; Gregg et
al., 2005; Ofiesh, Mather, & Russell,
2005). Two articles (Lang et al., 2005;
Packer, 2005) reported on perceptions of
accommodations on the part of different
stakeholder groups (parents, students,
and educators in the former, and parents
only in the latter).
Research Type, Data
Collection, and Research Designs
There are several
ways in which the research methods of
these studies can be categorized. The
first of these focuses on the status of
each study as experimental,
quasi-experimental, or non-experimental.
A summary of studies by research type is
given in Table 2, and detailed in
Appendix B. In this categorization, an
experiment (n=7) is characterized by
random assignment of participants to at
least one experimental condition. In
contrast, the quasi-experiments (n=8) do
not involve random assignment at all to
any condition and instead are predicated
on analyses of intact groups.
Non-experimental studies (n=14) do not
entail group comparisons or experimental
manipulations of accommodations use.
Table 2. Research Type
Research Type |
Number of Studies |
Experimental |
7 |
Quasi-Experimental |
11
|
Non-Experimental |
14
|
Research design was
given additional scrutiny. For the
studies involving group comparisons (the
experimental and quasi-experimental
studies) the research designs identified
in Thurlow et al. (2000) were used to
describe studies. These designs are
described briefly here and are
illustrated in Figure 1.
- Design
1: Score comparability as a
function of the presence/absence
of a disability with equivalent
test forms
Defining
characteristics: equivalent
forms, each participant
completes all forms, random
assignment to conditions within
groups, includes students with
and without disabilities.
- Design
2: Score comparability as a
function of the presence/absence
of a disability with matched
samples
Defining
characteristics: single test
form, each participant completes
one form, matched samples,
includes students with and
without disabilities.
- Design
3: Score comparability as a
function of the use of an
accommodation for a single
disability
Defining
characteristics: equivalent
forms, each subject takes all
forms, random assignment to
conditions, includes only
students with disabilities.
- Design
4: Score comparability as a
function of the use of an
accommodation for subjects with
disabilities
Defining
characteristics: single test
form, each participant completes
one form, matched samples,
includes only students with
disabilities.
Figure 1. Research
Designs 1, 2, 3, and 4 from Thurlow et
al. (2000)
Several other group
designs for comparisons were also used
in this research, and these were largely
a variation on Design 2 (Bolt &
Ysseldyke, 2006; Bruins, 2006; Huynh &
Barton, 2006) and variations on Design 4
(Higgins et al., 2005; Horkay et al.,
2006; Cohen, Gregg, & Deng, 2005). In
addition, studies such as Gregg et al.
(2005) and Shaftel, Belton-Kocher,
Glasnapp, and Poggio (2006) administered
the same tests to students with and
without disabilities to identify
predictors of accommodations needs.
Among the
non-experimental studies, designs that
were used included case studies
(Horvath, Kampfer-Bohach, & Kearns,
2005; Rickey, 2005), literature reviews
(Edgemon, Jablonski, & Lloyd, 2006;
Meyen, Poggio, Seok, & Smith, 2006;
Sahlen & Lehmann, 2006; Sireci, 2005;
Sireci et al., 2005; and Stretch &
Osborne, 2005), observations (Van
Weelden & Whipple, 2005), and surveys
(Cawthon, 2006; Cox, Herner, Demzyk, &
Nieberding, 2006; Gibson, Haaeberli,
Glover, & Witter, 2005; Maccini &
Gagnon, 2006; Packer, 2005).
A third and final
characteristic of the techniques
reported in accommodations research
published in 2005-2006 is the source of
the data, reflecting the decision of the
researchers to use primary or
archival/secondary data. In the former
case, data collection is initiated and
carried out by the researcher for the
specific purpose of a study; the
alternative is archival/secondary data,
which is an available data set collected
for a purpose other than research
question. A cross-tabulation of data
collection source level by research
design is given in Table 3. A breakdown
of research type, data collection, and
research design information by reference
is located in Appendix B.
Table 3. Studies by
Research Designs and Data Collection
Source
|
Research
Design |
Data
Collection Source |
Total |
Primary |
Archival |
Group comparison
(15 studies total) |
Design 1 |
5 |
-- |
5 |
Design 2 |
2 |
3 |
5 |
Design 3 |
1 |
-- |
1 |
Design 4 |
3 |
1 |
4 |
Other design |
-- |
3 |
3 |
Non-experimental
(10 studies
total) |
Case
study |
2 |
-- |
2 |
Literature-based studies |
-- |
6 |
6 |
Survey |
4 |
1 |
5 |
Observation |
1 |
-- |
1 |
Total |
18 |
14 |
32 |
Assessment/Data
Collection Focus
The accommodations
research included here takes place in a
wide variety of testing contexts, as
indicated by the variety of instruments
used in the studies (see Table 4). State
criterion-referenced assessments, often
used for NCLB purposes, were the most
common data collection instruments
involved in the studies (Bolt &
Ysseldyke, 2006; Bruins, 2006; Cohen et
al., 2005; Cox et al., 2006; Edgemon et
al., 2006; Fletcher et al., 2006; Huynh
& Barton, 2006; Meyen et al., 2006; and
Shaftel et al., 2006).
Researcher-developed survey instruments
and interview protocols were the next
most common data collection instruments
used (Cawthon, 2006, Horvath et al.,
2005; Lang et al. 2005; Maccini &
Gagnon, 2006; Packer, 2005; Rickey,
2005; and Van Weelden & Whipple, 2005).
Miscellaneous standardized academic
achievement measures (a category that
includes various Woodcock-Johnson
subtests, Nelson-Denny Reading tests,
and others) similarly accounted for over
20% of the studies reviewed (Antalek,
2005; Gregg et al., 2005; Lesaux et al.,
2006; Ofiesh et al., 2005; Sahlen &
Lehmann, 2006; Sireci et al., 2005; and
Stretch & Osborne, 2005).
A number of other
studies considered norm-referenced
academic achievement tests such as the
Stanford Achievement Test (SAT), ACT,
and Graduate Record Examination (GRE)
(Baker, 2006; Gibson et al., 2005;
Kettler et al., 2005; Lang et al., 2005;
Schnirman, 2005; and Sireci, 2005).
Researcher-developed instruments were
test forms created by the researchers
for the express purpose of using them in
their studies, most often using released
test items from established testing
programs such as the SAT, the National
Assessment of Educational Progress
(NAEP), and the Programme for
International Reading and Language Arts
Standards (PIRLS), and state assessments
(Dolan et al., 2005; Higgins et al.,
2005; Horkay et al., 2006; and
Mandinach, Bridgeman, Cahalan-Laitusis,
& Trapani, 2005). A listing of studies
by assessment context of interest is
given in Appendix C.
Table 4. Assessment/Data
Collection Instruments
Type |
Number of
Studies* |
State criterion-referenced
assessment |
9 |
Surveys/case study/interview
protocols |
7 |
Miscellaneous standardized
academic
achievement/intelligence
measures |
7** |
Norm-referenced academic
achievement tests |
6*** |
Researcher-developed academic
measures |
4 |
* One study included more than one type
of data collection method.
** Includes two literature reviews that
were nonspecific about the tests used in
the articles reviewed.
*** Includes one literature review that
focused on accommodations use with tests
for postsecondary admissions.
Content Area Assessed
Accommodations
research published in 2005-2006 spanned
a wide range of content areas.
Mathematics and reading (along with
assorted language arts constructs such
as writing, spelling, and vocabulary,
among others) were among the most often
studied domains, as shown in Table 5.
Other academic domains such as science,
social studies, and music were also
considered. Four studies of testing
accommodations did not mention specific
content areas. A complete list of
content area or areas addressed in each
study is provided in Appendix C.
Table 5. Academic
Content Areas Involved
Content Areas
Assessed |
Total* |
Mathematics |
17 |
Reading |
14 |
Misc. Language Arts** |
9 |
Writing |
4 |
Science |
1 |
Social Studies |
1 |
Civics/U.S. History |
1 |
Music |
1 |
No
specific content area |
7
|
* Some studies included
an examination of accommodations in more
than one content area.
** Miscellaneous Language Arts
assessment areas include Language
Usage, Verbal, Spelling, Listening,
and Vocabulary.
Number of Research
Participants (Total and Percent of
Sample Consisting of Students with
Disabilities)
A summary of the
research participants is given in Table
6; this is further detailed for each
study in Appendix D. Among the reviewed
studies, the overall number of
participants in the research varied from
those that were small-scale studies,
which included 10 or fewer individuals,
to those that were very large-scale
studies, which included over 300
individuals. The smallest study (Horvath
et al., 2005) involved 9 research
participants, while the largest reported
data from over 107,000 examinees and six
grade levels (Bolt & Ysseldyke, 2006).
The proportion of participants in the
research studies who were individuals
with disabilities ranged from 0%
(Higgins et al., 2005; Horkay et al.,
2006) to 100% (Antalek, 2005; Baker,
2006; Dolan et al., 2005; Gibson et al.,
2005; Horvath et al., 2005). Six studies
reported data gathered from teachers,
parents, schools, and states about
individuals with disabilities and
accommodations practices or use (Packer,
2005; Cawthon, 2006; Maccini & Gagnon,
2006; Rickey, 2005; Cox et al., 2006;
Van Weelden & Whipple, 2005), while
twenty addressed individual test-takers
and five were literature reviews
reporting on multiple studies with
ranges of sample sizes and populations
not individually reflected here. One
involved legal cases.
Table 6. Cross
tabulation of Sample Size by Percent of
Individuals with Disabilities in Sample
Total Number
of Research Participants |
Percent of
Sample Consisting of Individuals
with Disabilities |
0-24% |
25-49% |
50-74% |
75-100% |
Not reported |
Not
applicable* |
N |
1-10 |
-- |
-- |
-- |
2 |
-- |
1 |
3 |
11-100 |
-- |
1 |
2 |
1 |
-- |
2 |
6 |
101-300 |
1 |
2 |
2 |
1 |
-- |
2 |
8 |
More
than 300 |
3 |
1 |
2 |
1 |
-- |
-- |
7 |
Not
applicable* |
-- |
-- |
-- |
-- |
1 |
7 |
8 |
N |
4 |
4 |
6 |
5 |
1 |
12 |
32 |
* These studies included
(1) literature reviews of multiple
studies where samples varied widely
across the multiple studies included in
each of the reviews, and (2) research
studies that did not include students
directly as the unit of analysis (e.g.,
they reported data from parents and/or
teachers or aggregated results at the
school or state level).
Grade Level
Most accommodations research that was
completed involved K-12 students, with
13 studies involving elementary
students, 15 focusing on middle school,
and 15 also concerned with high school
students (see Table 7). Specific grade
levels for individual studies are
reported in Appendix D, along with
information on sample size and percent
of sample with disabilities.
Table 7. Grade Level of
Research Participants
Education Level of Participants
in Studies |
Number of Studies * |
Elementary School (K-5) |
13 |
Middle School (6-8) |
15 |
High
School (9-12) |
15 |
Postsecondary |
6 |
Adults/Adult Education |
1 |
Various, not specific |
2 |
* Counts include studies
that spanned multiple grade levels.
Disabilities Included in
Research
Table 8. Disabilities
Reported in Research Participants
Disabilities
Observed in Research
Participants |
Number of
Studies* |
Learning disability |
13 |
Disability not specified/general
special needs students |
10 |
Other disability (e.g.,
Physical/sensory disabilities,
attention deficit disorder,
health impairments, and multiple
disabilities) |
8 |
Emotional/Behavioral disability |
4 |
Reading or Math deficit |
3 |
Cognitive disability |
1 |
* Counts include studies
involving students with multiple
disabilities.
Types of Accommodations
in Reviewed Research
Test accommodations
experimentally or quasi-experimentally
studied in the research fell into three
categories: Presentation,
Timing/Scheduling, and Setting. Response
accommodations were not addressed in the
research published in 2005-2006. Table 9
provides a brief summary of the
accommodations studied in the research;
this information is broken out by
individual study in Appendix E. Extended
time was the most frequently researched
accommodation (Antalek, 2005; Baker,
2006; Bolt & Ysseldyke, 2006; Cohen et
al., 2005; Lesaux et al., 2006;
Mandinach et al., 2005; Ofiesh et al.,
2005). Various implementations of oral
administration including audiocassette
presentation (Schnirman, 2005),
read-aloud of proper nouns (Fletcher et
al., 2006), and entire items (Bolt &
Ysseldyke, 2006; Huynh & Barton, 2006),
and computerized text-to-speech (Dolan
et al., 2005) were examined in five
studies. Two studies empirically studied
the effects of accommodations as
assigned by individual student IEPs
(Bruins, 2006; Kettler et al., 2005),
rather than focusing on specific
individual accommodations.
Table 9. Accommodations
in Reviewed Research
Accommodation
Category |
Accommodation |
Number of
Studies |
Presentation |
Oral
administration |
5 |
|
Computer administration |
3 |
|
Scrolling vs. paging |
1 |
Timing/Scheduling |
Extended time |
7 |
|
Multiple day/sessions
|
1 |
|
Separately timed sections |
1 |
Setting |
Small group/individual |
1 |
As
defined by students’ IEPs |
|
2 |
Other |
17* |
* The “Other” category
is comprised of 17 studies where
accommodations practices and use were
explored but not experimentally (or
quasi-experimentally) studied for their
effects on test scores.
Top of page
Research Findings
For those studies of
the empirical effect of accommodations
(see Table 10), none of the studies
found any of the accommodations to have
a negative impact on student scores,
although for some accommodations the
results were mixed. This was
particularly the case for oral
accommodations, computerized tests, and
extended time. Overall, however, all of
the timing accommodations reported a
generally positive influence on scores.
Specific study results by category are
given in Appendix F.
Two studies focused
on predicting the need for
accommodations, and in both cases, the
tests used were found to be helpful. The
surveys of accommodations use indicated
that for specific populations some
accommodations are more prevalent and
that teachers' use of accommodations is
often related to their training. From
three studies, the selection and use of
accommodations was found to be a complex
undertaking requiring collaboration
among stakeholders.
Table 10. Summary of Research Findings
Research
Findings |
Number of
Studies* |
Oral
administration (read-aloud,
audiocassette, text-to-speech) (n=5) |
Positive effect on scores of
students with disabilities when
bundled with computer-based
testing |
1 |
Positive effect on scores of
students with disabilities when
bundled with multiple sessions |
1 |
Associated with more DIF in
Reading/Language Arts than Math |
1 |
No
effect on scores |
2 |
Computerized test (n=3) |
Positive effect on scores of
students with disabilities when
bundled with oral administration |
1 |
No
effect on scores |
2 |
Scrolling vs. paging (n=1) |
No
effect on scores |
1 |
Extended time (n=6) |
Positive effect on scores of
students with disabilities
|
3 |
Positive effect on all student
scores |
1 |
Extended time use did not
explain observed Differential
Item Functioning (DIF) |
1 |
DIF
for read-aloud and extended time
was consistent with DIF for
read-aloud only |
1 |
Multiple day/sessions (n=1) |
Positive effect on scores of
students with disabilities when
bundled with oral administration |
1 |
Separately timed sessions (n=1) |
Positive effect on all student
scores |
1 |
Small group administration (n=1)
|
DIF
for read-aloud and small group
administration was consistent
with DIF for read-aloud only |
1 |
IEP-defined accommodations (n=3) |
Positive effect on scores |
1 |
No
positive effect |
1 |
Accommodations perceived as fair |
1 |
Meta-analyses of Accommodated
Conditions (n=3) |
More
empirical research needed |
3 |
Positive effect on scores of
students with disabilities
|
1 |
Prediction of need for
accommodations (n=2) |
Tests were useful in prediction |
2 |
Selection/implementation of
accommodations (n=12) |
Lack
of alignment with IEP |
1 |
Some
accommodations are more common
than others |
4 |
Language characteristics have no
disproportionate impact on
students with disabilities
|
1 |
Educators and institutions vary
in accommodations use |
3 |
Determining appropriate
assessment accommodations is a
complex and collaborative
undertaking |
3 |
* Some
studies looked at more than one
accommodation or reported more than one
conclusion.
Limitations
Many of the studies
included in this review noted at least
one limitation to the research and
findings. The limitations identified by
the authors of the studies were
classified as related to either the (1)
research sample/participants (e.g.,
small sample size, lack of diversity),
(2) test or testing context (e.g.,
number of items on the assessment
instrument used), (3) methodology (e.g.,
decisions about study design, data
collection, or data analysis), or (4)
research results (e.g., unexpected
findings that seem contradictory to
established practice or other research).
The numbers of studies in which each
type of limitation was mentioned are
summarized in Table 11; these are listed
by study and category in Appendix G. As
is evident in Table 11, the most
frequently mentioned limitations focused
on the samples used in the studies and
methodology limitations.
Table 11.
Limitations
Limitation category |
Number of Studies* |
Sample characteristics |
16 |
Methodology |
13 |
Test/testing context |
8 |
Results |
4 |
No limitations listed |
11 |
* Many studies included more
than one limitation.
Future
Research
Future research
directions identified in the
accommodations studies published in
2005-2006 were categorized in terms of
their recommendations for future studies
to focus efforts on sample
characteristics, tests and testing
contexts, methodology, or results. A
summary of future research by category
is presented in Table 12; these
suggestions are described more fully in
Appendix G. Those suggestions
categorized into the results category
offered the most directions for future
research, followed by those suggestions
for improvements and advances in
methodology.
Table 12. Future Research
Future
Research |
Number of
Studies* |
Results |
19 |
Methodology
|
16 |
Sample
characteristics |
9 |
Test/testing
context |
7 |
No future
research directions given |
5 |
*Many studies listed more than
one direction for future research.
Top of page
Discussion and
Implications for Future Research
The 32 studies
included here present practitioners and
researchers with a number of insights
into both the current state of research
on test accommodations and the
directions that future research might
take. At a broad level, most of the
research published in 2005-2006 fell
into one of two categories: (1)
empirical studies of student scores from
assessments administered under
accommodated and non-accommodated
conditions, and (2) research activities
that were more descriptive in nature,
aimed at identifying the accommodations
used with different test populations or
how accommodations use is perceived by
different stakeholder groups.
Much of the research
carried out to evaluate the
comparability of scores from standard
and nonstandard administrations included
both students with and without
disabilities (n=10), and implemented the
full range of designs identified in
Thurlow et al. (2000). Of the
non-experimental work, most were
surveys, but the research also included
case studies and observations of
assessment practices. Over 56% of the
research studies (n=18) used primary
data in their investigations rather than
drawing on extant data sets.
As in previous
summaries of accommodations research (Johnstone,
Altman, Thurlow, & Thompson, 2006;
Sireci et al., 2005), the domains of
mathematics and language arts
(specifically reading, but also writing
and other related skills) were the most
frequently studied content areas. Among
the academic measures used in the
studies, some were state tests used for
NCLB purposes, but much research
involved norm-referenced assessments,
such as TerraNova (Gibson et al., 2005;
Kettler et al., 2005; Lang et al., 2005)
or the SAT.
The findings of the
survey research studies presented in
this review of 2005-2006 research
reported that a wide variety of
accommodations were in use for different
student populations. It is interesting
then, to note that there were just seven
specific types of accommodations
empirically studied and those were quite
narrowly focused primarily in two
categories (presentation and
timing/scheduling). This finding was in
contrast to earlier summaries of
accommodations research by Johnstone et
al. (2006) and Thompson, Blount, and
Thurlow (2002), where there were 11
different accommodations within four
categories reported as being studied
empirically in each of those two
reviews.
In the research
summarized here the most common type of
accommodation was timing/scheduling,
with the specific accommodations studied
including extended time, multiple
testing sessions, and separately timed
test sections. Presentation
accommodations were the second most
frequent type of accommodation provided.
This category included computerized
administration, oral administration
(partial or whole read-aloud,
computerized text-to-speech, and the use
of audiocassettes), and scrolling or
paging as the display method for
passages. Five studies addressed
specific accommodations in bundles
(Fletcher et al., 2006; Dolan et al.,
2005; Bolt & Ysseldyke, 2006; Higgins et
al., 2005; Mandinach et al., 2005), and
only the design of Higgins et al. (2005)
and Mandinach et al. (2005) permitted
the results for the bundled
accommodations to be discussed
separately.
A wide range of
disabilities and participant ages were
reported in the participant samples in
the accommodations research published in
2005-2006. Learning disabilities was the
most common disability category included
in the research, either singly (n=6) or
in combination with other disabilities
(n=7). About 30 percent of the studies
did not report distinctions among the
disabilities exhibited by students
participating in the research. Other
specific conditions that also emerged in
the research included Tourette’s
syndrome, deafblindness, and
deaf/hard-of-hearing. Research took
place at all levels of education
including postsecondary and adult
schooling, and was evenly distributed
across elementary, middle, and high
school grade levels; indeed, about 80
percent of the research involved more
than one grade level. Six studies were
"very large" with participants numbering
over 1,000 participants (and these
analyses were carried out using extant
testing program data); however, the
majority of studies were moderate in
scope, with data collected from 100 to
300 individuals.
Although this review
of 2005-2006 accommodations research was
not conducted as a formal meta-analysis,
the patterns of research and results
identified together raise a number of
possible directions to inform future
studies of accommodations use and the
effects on student scores. These
directions include (1) further study of
extended time, (2) computers and
assistive technology as accommodations,
(3) the role of teachers, and (4) the
interaction hypothesis.
The results for
extended time, the most frequently
researched accommodation in the 32
studies considered here, are generally
consistent with the previous literature,
where extended time had been shown to
have a positive effect on the scores of
students with disabilities. However, the
emerging trend in elementary and
secondary education toward the use of
untimed tests for all students (as part
of a larger strategy of integrating
universal test design noted by Sireci et
al., 2005), if it continues, may yet
minimize the need for further study of
the benefits of extended time test
accommodations.
At the same time,
while computerized administration is
increasingly being considered for use
across testing contexts, the research on
different aspects of computer technology
as test accommodations is not yet
conclusive. This is due in part to
operational challenges of implementing
computer-based tests in practice or for
research purposes. Nevertheless,
computers do hold much promise for
allowing students to use innovative
formats and tailoring the presentation
of the test to their individual needs
(e.g., magnifying text, pacing in audio
presentation). As reported in Johnstone
et al. (2006), the computer as an
accommodation investigated in the
present research was not definitive. In
addition, the presentation accommodation
of scrolling or paging through passages
did not have any effect on student
scores one way or another, but further
study comparing the effects for students
with and without disabilities (rather
than only students without disabilities)
seems warranted. Ultimately, because of
the range of ways that computerized
tests can be formatted and administered
for different purposes and content
areas, a concerted program of research
on operationally defining and evaluating
computerized assessment accommodations,
available on-demand, is needed. The
review by Meyen et al. (2006) on the use
of computerized-adaptive testing as a
strategy for testing students with
disabilities is likewise an important
direction for future research, but
computer use should be implemented
carefully with respect to universal test
design and with the goal of minimizing
construct-irrelevant variance.
From the research
involving teachers, significant
variation among teachers was found in
their familiarity with and use of
different testing accommodations (Maccini
& Gagnon, 2006). A disconnect was also
found between the accommodations named
in student IEPs, the accommodations used
in everyday classroom instruction, and
what was permissible for testing
(Horvath et al., 2005). For student
populations with specific disabilities,
such as Tourette’s syndrome (Packer,
2005) and deafness/hard of hearing (Cawthon,
2006), the research studies identified
the most commonly used accommodations
for those students.
The interaction
hypothesis proposes that students with
disabilities will benefit to a greater
extent from accommodations than students
without disabilities (i.e., there will
be an interaction effect). This
hypothesis was the topic of the article
by Sireci et al. (2005), and the
empirical results reported by Fletcher
et al. (2006), Lesaux et al. (2006), and
Kettler et al. (2005) provided support
for the idea that students with
disabilities needed accommodations and
benefited from their use, while students
without disabilities did not benefit
from them (at least not to the same
extent). In Fletcher et al. (2006), only
students with disabilities benefited
from the use of the orally-administered
test given in multiple sessions, while
Lesaux et al. (2006) and Kettler et al.
(2005) found similar results for the
extended time and IEP-assigned
accommodations, respectively. In Sireci
et al. (2005), evidence supporting a
revision of the interaction hypothesis
with respect to extended time was
compiled. This revised hypothesis was
based on the finding that both students
with and without disabilities benefited
from extended time, but the students
with disabilities exhibited relatively
greater score gains. This revision is
consistent with differential boost
theory (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2001; Thompson et
al., 2002). Because accommodations
represent departures from the standard
testing protocol and almost always are
considered to benefit only students with
disabilities for whom they are
appropriate, future research should
continue to implement research designs
that explicitly address the interaction
hypothesis and differential boost to
inform practice.
Although advancing
understanding of the effects and use of
testing accommodations, the authors of
the 2005-2006 research on accommodations
also took a critical eye to their own
work and identified both limitations and
findings deserving additional study.
Many of the limitations they identified
addressed aspects of research samples
(small size, sample composition or
homogeneity, lack of specific data, and
motivation questions). Study design
issues were also mentioned by several
researchers including Dolan et al.
(2005), who pointed out that the
accommodations were tested in such a way
that the interaction hypothesis was not
evaluated. Both Huynh and Barton (2006)
and Kettler et al. (2005) cited
limitations related to the variations in
how different accommodations can be
operationalized and the extent to which
such differences limit generalizability.
One limitation across the studies of the
effects of accommodations is the use of
predominantly multiple-choice items in
the measurement instruments. In fact,
some studies, such as Cohen et al.
(2005) eliminated constructed-response
items to simplify the analyses. Given
that Koretz and Hamilton (2000) found
differences between the performance of
students with disabilities' performance
on multiple choice and constructed
response items, future research should
further evaluate potential differential
impact of accommodations on these
different item formats. While multiple
choice items are certainly common in
many assessments, other formats such as
short-answer and extended-answer items
are being used in state tests for K-12
students. In the future, studies of
accommodations should look at strategies
for implementing accommodations across
more mixed-format tests.
The reviews of test
accommodations issues completed by
Sireci et al. (2005), Sireci (2005), and
Stretch and Osborne (2005),
respectively, were focused on the
interaction hypothesis, score
comparability and interpretation, and
extended time accommodations, but
together offered many important
directions for future study. How
accommodations are operationalized is
one area where greater definition or
clarification may be warranted, as is
improved guidance for users of scores
from accommodated and non-accommodated
administrations about appropriate test
score inferences.
Great diversity
exists both with respect to the
individuals requiring assessment
accommodations and the range of
accommodations available. The test
accommodations research published in
2005-2006 and in previous years amply
reflects that diversity, but such
diversity does not easily lend itself to
consensus on policy for valid testing
practice. The completion of more
well-constructed meta-analyses of
specific accommodations is one strategy
that researchers should consider, in
addition to further empirical study of
specific accommodations with
different—both heterogeneous and
homogeneous—student populations.
Bridging research and
practice is ultimately no easy task, but
at this point of reflection, taking
stock of what has been learned from the
2005-2006 and previous years’ studies is
critical. The accommodations research
findings to date offer advances in
knowledge about the effects of
accommodations, but in 2005-2006, as in
previous years, variations across
operational definitions, tests,
populations, settings, and contexts
still curb all but the most general
policy implications. Decisions
surrounding the use of testing
accommodations involve increasingly
high-stakes consequences, and yet
interpreting scores from accommodated
and non-accommodated administrations
remains, in many cases, as much art as
science. Johnstone et al. (2006) and
others have noted previously that
broader changes and innovations in
testing practices may help to lessen the
need for accommodations for students
with disabilities; this may be
accomplished by revisiting the testing
experience for all students, such as
making tests untimed across the board.
Still, additional,
experimentally-designed research to
identify best practices for operational
testing and the communication of that
information to interested researchers,
educators, policymakers, parents,
students with disabilities themselves,
and other consumers, in clear and
concise terms will help to ensure that
students with and without disabilities
alike are assessed equitably by methods
that reflect the best that research and
practice together can offer.
The assessment
policies of NCLB strongly emphasize
including all students in assessments
and require disaggregated reporting for
students with disabilities and other
groups. These policies also emphasize
obtaining valid measures of students’
performance. For many students, valid
measurement means providing
accommodations that do not change the
construct measured, but make the test
more accessible to them. Thus, the need
for understanding what the research on
test accommodations tells us is more
important than ever before. It will be
essential to continue to review and
summarize the research conducted in this
area, and to question whether changes in
assessment and accommodations policies
need to be made. It may also be
important to explore new designs and new
hypotheses as research moves forward to
address the policy implications of
research findings in this area.
Top of page
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accommodations for students with
disabilities (Synthesis Report 64).
Minneapolis, MN: University of
Minnesota, National Center on
Educational Outcomes. Available at
http://cehd.umn.edu/NCEO/OnlinePubs/Synthesis64/default.html
Lesaux, N. K.,
Pearson, M. R., & Siegel, L. S. (2006).
The effects of timed and untimed testing
conditions on the reading comprehension
performance of adults with reading
disabilities. Reading and Writing, 19,
21-48.
Maccini, P., &
Gagnon, J. C. (2006). Mathematics
instructional practices and assessment
accommodations by special and general
educators. Exceptional Children, 72(2),
217-234.
Mandinach, E. B.,
Bridgeman, B., Cahalan-Laitusis, C., &
Trapani, C. (2005). The impact of
extended time on SAT test performance.
Research Report No 2005-8. New
York, NY: The College Board.
Meyen, E., Poggio,
J., Seok, S., & Smith, S. (2006). Equity
for students with high-incidence
disabilities in statewide assessments: A
technology-based solution. Focus on
Exceptional Children, 38(7), 1-8.
National Center for
Education Statistics. (2006). Common
Core of Data (CCD): School Years 2004
Through 2005. Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Education, Institute of
Education Sciences.
Ofiesh, N., Mather,
N., & Russell, A. (2005). Using speeded
cognitive, reading, and academic
measures to determine the need for
extended test time among university
students with learning disabilities.
Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment,
23, 35-52.
Packer, L. E. (2005).
Tic-related school problems: Impact on
functioning, accommodations, and
interventions. Behavior Modification,
29(6), 876-899.
Rickey, K. M. (2005).
Assessment accommodations for students
with disabilities: A description of the
decision-making process, perspectives of
those affected, and current practices.
Dissertation Abstracts International,
67(1), 145 A. Retrieved August 5,
2006 from Digital Dissertations
database.
Sahlen, C. A. H., &
Lehmann, J. P. (2006). Requesting
accommodations in higher education.
Teaching Exceptional Children, 38(3),
28-34.
Schnirman, R. K.
(2005). The effect of audiocassette
presentation on the performance of
students with and without learning
disabilities on a group standardized
math test. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 66(6), 2172 A.
Retrieved August 5, 2006 from Digital
Dissertations database.
Shaftel, J.,
Belton-Kocher, E., Glasnapp, D., &
Poggio, J. (2006). The impact of
language characteristics in mathematics
test items on the performance of English
language learners and students with
disabilities. Educational Assessment,
11(2), 105-126.
Sireci, S. G. (2005).
Unlabeling the disabled: A perspective
on flagging scores from accommodated
test administrations. Educational
Researcher, 34(1), 3-12.
Sireci, S. G.,
Scarpati, S. E., & Li, S. (2005). Test
accommodations for students with
disabilities: An analysis of the
interaction hypothesis. Review of
Educational Research, 75(4),
457-490.
Stretch, L. S., &
Osborne, J. W. (2005). Extended test
time accommodations: Directions for
future research and practice.
Practical Assessment, Research, and
Evaluation, 10(8). Retrieved August
5, 2006, from http://pareonline.net/pdf/v10n8.pdf.
Thompson, S., Blount,
A., & Thurlow, M. (2002). A summary
of research on the effects of test
accommodations: 1999 through 2001
(Technical Report 34). Minneapolis, MN:
University of Minnesota, National Center
on Educational Outcomes. Available at
http://cehd.umn.edu/NCEO/OnlinePubs/Technical34.htm.
Thurlow, M. L.,
McGrew, K.S., Tindal, G., Thompson, S.
L., Ysseldyke, J. E., & Elliott, J. L.
(2000). Assessment accommodations
research: Considerations for design and
analysis (Technical Report 26).
Minneapolis, MN: University of
Minnesota, National Center on
Educational Outcomes. Available at
http://cehd.umn.edu/NCEO/OnlinePubs/Technical26.htm.
Tindal, G. (1998).
Models for understanding task
comparability in accommodated testing.
A publication for the Council of
Chief State School Officers, Washington,
DC. Retrieved May 19, 2006, from the
World Wide Web:
http://cehd.umn.edu/NCEO/OnlinePubs/Accomm/TaskComparability.htm
VanWeelden, K., &
Whipple, J. (2005). Preservice teachers’
predictions, perceptions, and actual
assessment students with special needs
in secondary general music. The
Journal of Music Therapy, 42(3),
200-221.
Top of page
Appendix
A. Research Purposes
Table A-1.
Purpose Category: Compare Scores from
Standard/Nonstandard Administration
Conditions for Students With and Without
Disabilities
Author(s) |
Stated Research Purpose |
Bolt
& Ysseldyke (2006) |
Examine the extent to which
read-aloud accommodation allows
for better measurement on a math
test than a reading test. |
Bruins (2006) |
Determine (1) if there was a
significant difference in the
performance of general education
students and special education
students on the test, (2) if
testing accommodations equal the
testing performance of students
with disabilities when scores
are compared to nondisabled
peers, and (3) the impact of
including students with
disabilities as a separate
subgroup when calculating
adequate yearly progress. |
Cohen et al. (2005) |
Investigate the influence of
extended time and content
knowledge on the performance of
individuals taking a statewide
math test with and without
accommodations. |
Fletcher et al. (2006) |
Address interaction hypothesis
by evaluating accommodations
specifically designed to
minimize the impact of word
recognition difficulties on a
high-stakes reading
comprehension test, comparing
the performance of students with
word decoding problems with the
performance of students with
average word decoding ability. |
Huynh & Barton (2006) |
Examine the effect of oral
administration accommodations on
test structure and student
performance on a reading test. |
Kettler et al. (2005) |
Examine the effects of IEP-assigned
testing accommodations on
mathematics and reading test
scores. |
Lesaux et al. (2006) |
Examine the effects of extra
time on reading comprehension
performance of individuals with
reading disabilities. |
Mandinach et al. (2005) |
Explore the impact of providing
standard time, time-and-a-half
with and without section breaks,
and double time without
specified section breaks on
verbal and math SAT.
|
Schnirman (2005) |
Conduct an empirical
investigation of the effects of
audiocassette presentation by
comparing the performance of
students with LD and students
from general education, as well
as establish the relationship,
if any, between the level of
knowledge of mathematics
vocabulary and the benefit of
audiocassette presentation for
students with LD. |
Shaftel et al. (2006) |
Evaluate the impact of language
characteristics in mathematics
test items on student
performance for students with
disabilities and ELLs as well as
general education students. |
Table A-2.
Purpose Category: Compare Scores from
Standard/Nonstandard Administration
Conditions for Students with
Disabilities
Author(s) |
Stated Research Purpose |
Baker
(2006) |
Investigate the relationship
between the use of extended time
testing accommodations and
academic achievement in students
with learning disabilities. |
Dolan
et al. (2005) |
Investigate the potential of
computer-based read-aloud
testing accommodations, focusing
on computer-based testing with
text-to-speech as an approach
for providing individualized
support to students with
learning disabilities during
multiple-choice testing. |
Table A-3.
Purpose Category: Compare Scores from
Standard/Nonstandard Administration
Conditions for Students Without
Disabilities
Author(s) |
Stated Research Purpose |
Higgins et al. (2005) |
Examine differences in
performance when two different
computer-based test formats and
a traditional paper-and-pencil
based format are used to present
reading passages. |
Horkay et al. (2006) |
Investigate the comparability of
scores for paper and computer
versions of an eighth-grade
writing test. |
Table A-4.
Purpose Category: Report on
Implementation Practices and Test
Accommodations Use
Author(s) |
Stated Research Purpose |
Cawthon (2006) |
Report the results from the
National Survey of
Accommodations and Alternate
Assessments for Deaf and
Hard-of-Hearing Students in the
United States. |
Cox
et al. (2006) |
Discuss accommodations-related
research findings from a
three-year federally funded
study, examining accommodations
policies and discipline rates in
all fifty states. |
Edgemon et al. (2006) |
Provide recommendations and
guidelines for accommodations
decision-making, in addition to
offering a framework for special
educators to use in selecting
accommodations that permit
students with disabilities to
demonstrate knowledge,
competence, and learning on
large-scale assessments.
|
Gibson et al. (2005) |
Explore factors that potentially
influence the implementation of
recommended testing
accommodations, with respect to
(1) accommodations recommended
through the IEP process, (2)
accommodations recommended by
the teacher, and (3)
accommodations provided in the
testing sessions. |
Horvath et al. (2005) |
Describe the use of
accommodations among students
with deafblindness both in
general curriculum and during
statewide assessments. |
Maccini & Gagnon (2006) |
Answer questions about what
specific instructional practices
do special and general
educations teachers reportedly
use for students with learning
disabilities (LD) and emotional
or behavioral disabilities (EBD)
during both instruction on and
when assessing basic math
computation skills and
problem-solving tasks, and what
factors predict the number of
instructional practices and
assessment accommodations
general and special education
teachers reportedly make for
students with LD and EBD. |
Meyen
et al. (2006) |
Explain a technology-based
option (adaptive testing) that
allows for the construction of
tests tailored to the knowledge
and skill attributes of
individual examinees.
|
Rickey (2005) |
Examine the implementation of
the requirements of the 1997
IDEA. Amendments mandating
inclusion of students with
disabilities, with the use of
appropriate accommodations, in
state and district assessments. |
Sahlen & Lehman (2006) |
Identify the considerations that
students and postsecondary
institutions address during
legal cases involving
accommodations requests. |
VanWeelden & Whipple (2005) |
Examine preservice teachers’
predictions and perceptions of
students with special needs’
level of mastery of specific
music education concepts and
actual grades achieved by these
students using alternate
assessments and testing
accommodations. |
Table A-5.
Purpose Category: Review Literature on
Test Accommodations for Effects on
Scores and Assessment Practices
Author(s) |
Stated Research Purpose |
Sireci (2005) |
Review the psychometric issues
regarding flagging test scores
taken under non-standard
conditions, discuss
accommodations research in
college admissions testing, and
provide suggestions for
determining when scores should
be flagged. |
Sireci et al. (2005) |
Review numerous studies that
focused on the effects of
accommodations on test
performance to see if students
with disabilities benefited from
accommodations relative to their
nondisabled peers. |
Stretch & Osborne (2005) |
Summarize and discuss current
research on extended time
testing, particularly with
respect to implications for
assessment. |
Table A-6.
Purpose Category: Identify Predictors of
the Need for Test Accommodation(s)
Author(s) |
Stated Research Purpose |
Antalek (2005) |
Determine if visual-motor
processing speed is the most
effective predictor of the need
for extended time on complex
writing tasks, or if other
learning disability attributes
could have a similar or more
significant relationship upon
the successful completion of a
written task within a specific
time allotment. |
Gregg
et al. (2005) |
Examine the relationship between
specific Woodcock-Johnson III
Cognitive and Achievement
clusters across populations with
and without dyslexia, identify
the strongest WJ II cognitive
and linguistic predictors for
decoding, spelling, and reading
fluency, across samples with and
without dyslexia, and discuss
the implications of the findings
for assessment and
accommodations practices for
secondary and postsecondary
students. |
Ofiesh et al. (2005) |
Examine the relationship between
scores on speeded cognitive and
academic tests and the need for
the accommodation of extended
test time for normally achieving
students and students with
learning disabilities. |
Table A-7.
Purpose Category: Study or Compare
Perceptions of Accommodation Use
Author(s) |
Stated Research Purpose |
Lang
et al. (2005) |
Examine student, parent, and
teacher perceptions of the use
of testing accommodations and
the relationship between student
perceptions of testing
accommodations and their
disability status and grade
level. |
Packer (2005) |
Provide data on (1) parental
perceptions of how children’s
tics might impair specific
academic activities and
determine the impact of tic
improvement on academic
functions, (2) parental
impressions on improvement of
peer relationships if tics
improved or remitted, and (3)
how school personnel attempted
to respond to tic-related
problems and to determine the
perceived effectiveness of these
strategies. |
Top of page
Appendix
B. Research Characteristics
Table B-1.
Research Types, Designs, and Data
Sources
Research Type |
Studies |
Group Design |
Non-Exp.
Design |
Data Source |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
Other Design |
Experiment (n=7) |
Kettler et al. (2005) |
x |
|
|
|
|
|
Primary |
Ofiesh et al. (2005) |
x |
|
|
|
|
|
Primary |
Schnirman (2005) |
x |
|
|
|
|
|
Primary |
Mandinach et al. (2005) |
|
x |
|
|
|
|
Primary |
Fletcher et al. (2006) |
|
x |
|
|
|
|
Primary |
Dolan et al. (2005) |
|
|
x |
|
|
|
Primary |
Higgins et al. (2005)* |
|
|
|
x |
|
|
Primary |
Quasi-Experiment
(n=11) |
Lang
et al. (2005) |
x |
|
|
|
|
|
Primary |
Lesaux et al. (2006) |
x |
|
|
|
|
|
Primary |
Bolt
& Ysseldyke (2006)** |
|
x |
|
|
|
|
Archival |
Bruins (2006)** |
|
x |
|
|
|
|
Archival |
Huynh & Barton (2006)** |
|
x |
|
|
|
|
Archival |
Antalek (2005) |
|
|
|
x |
|
|
Primary |
Baker (2006) |
|
|
|
x |
|
|
Archival |
Horkay et al. (2006)*** |
|
|
|
x |
|
|
Primary |
Cohen et al. (2005)**** |
|
|
|
|
x |
|
Archival |
Gregg et al. (2005)***** |
|
|
|
|
x |
|
Archival |
Shaftel et al. (2006)***** |
|
|
|
|
x |
|
Archival |
Non-Experiment
(n=14) |
Cawthon (2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
Survey |
Primary |
Cox
et al. (2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
Survey |
Archival |
Gibson et al. (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
Survey |
Primary |
Maccini & Gagnon (2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
Survey |
Primary |
Packer (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
Survey |
Primary |
VanWeelden&Whipple (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
Observation |
Primary |
Edgemon et al. (2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
Lit.
review |
Archival |
Meyen et al. (2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
Lit.
review |
Archival |
Sahlen & Lehmann (2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
Lit.
review |
Archival |
Sireci (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
Lit.
review |
Archival |
Sireci et al. (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
Lit.
review |
Archival |
Stretch & Osborne (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
Lit.
review |
Archival |
Horvath et al. (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
Case
study |
Primary |
Rickey (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
Case
study |
Primary |
* Design 4 except all participants
were students without disabilities.
** Design 2 with only one group
without disabilities (no
accommodations).
***Design 4 except all participants
were students without disabilities and
two groups received accommodations.
**** Design 4 except students with
disabilities took accommodated test;
students without disabilities took
nonaccommodated.
***** Both students with disabilities
and students without disabilities took
the same tests to identify predictors of
accommodations need.
Top of page
Appendix C.
Assessment/Instrument Characteristics
Table C-1. Assessment/Instrument
Types and Specific
Assessments/Instruments Used
Studies |
Researcher-developed
survey/interview protocols |
Miscellaneous
academic achievement/
intelligence measures |
Norm-referenced academic
achievement tests |
State
criterion-referenced assessment |
Researcher-developed tests |
Antalek (2005) |
|
Test of
Written Language (3rd
Ed.) |
|
|
|
Baker (2006) |
|
|
SAT |
|
|
Bolt & Ysseldyke (2006) |
|
|
|
Unspecified
state’s large-scale assessment |
|
Bruins (2006) |
|
|
|
Idaho
Standards Achievement Test |
|
Cawthon (2006) |
National
Survey of Accommodations and
Alternate Assessments for
Students who are Deaf or Hard of
Hearing in the United States |
|
|
|
|
Cohen et al. (2005) |
|
|
|
Florida
Comprehensive Assessment Test |
|
Cox et al. (2006) |
|
|
|
Various state
NCLB assessments |
|
Dolan et al. (2005) |
|
|
|
|
Released
NAEP items |
Edgemon et al. (2006) |
|
|
|
Various state
NCLB assessments |
|
Fletcher et al. (2006) |
|
|
|
Texas
Assessment of Knowledge and
Skills (practice
form) |
|
Gibson et al. (2005) |
|
|
TerraNova |
|
|
Gregg et al. (2005)
|
|
Woodcock-Johnson III
(Various) |
|
|
|
Higgins et al. (2005) |
|
|
|
|
Released
NAEP, PIRLS, and NH
state assessment items |
Horkay et al. (2006) |
|
|
|
|
NAEP
items |
Horvath et al. (2005) |
Student,
parent, and teacher interviews;
student observations |
|
|
|
|
Huynh & Barton (2006) |
|
|
|
South Carolina
High School Exit Examination |
|
Kettler et al. (2005) |
|
|
TerraNova
(research
forms) |
|
|
Lang et al. (2005) |
Student,
parent, and teacher surveys |
|
TerraNova
(research
forms) |
|
|
Lesaux et al. (2006) |
|
Woodcock-Johnson,
Wide Range Achievement Test,
Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale (Various) |
|
|
|
Maccini & Gagnon (2006) |
Teacher survey
of assessment accommodations |
|
|
|
|
Mandinach et al. (2005) |
|
|
|
|
Released
SAT items |
Meyen et al. (2006) |
|
|
|
Various state
NCLB assessments |
|
Ofiesh et al. (2005) |
|
Kaufman Brief
Intelligence Test,
Weschler Adult Intelligence
Scale, Woodcock-Johnson,
Nelson Denny (Various) |
|
|
|
Packer (2005) |
Parental
survey of school experiences |
|
|
|
|
Rickey (2005) |
Student,
parent, and teacher interviews
about accommodation
practices/use |
|
|
|
|
Sahlen & Lehmann (2006) |
|
Various
college course assessments
|
|
|
|
Schnirman (2005) |
|
|
Iowa Tests of
Basic Skills |
|
|
Shaftel et al. (2006) |
|
|
|
Kansas General
Assessments |
|
Sireci (2005) |
|
|
SAT, GRE, ACT |
|
|
Sireci et al. (2005) |
|
Various |
|
|
|
Stretch & Osborne (2005) |
|
Various |
|
|
|
VanWeelden & Whipple (2005) |
Pre-service
teachers survey of
accommodations use |
|
|
|
|
Total
|
7 |
7 |
6 |
9 |
4 |
Table C-2. Content Areas Assessed
Author(s) |
Math |
Reading |
Writing |
Other LA* |
Science |
Social Studies |
Civics/ US
History |
Music |
Not Specific |
N |
Antalek (2005) |
|
|
x |
|
|
|
|
|
|
1 |
Baker (2006) |
x |
|
|
x |
|
|
|
|
|
2 |
Bolt & Ysseldyke (2006) |
x |
x |
|
x |
|
|
|
|
|
3 |
Bruins (2006) |
x |
x |
|
x |
|
|
|
|
|
3 |
Cawthon (2006) |
x |
x |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2 |
Cohen et al. (2005) |
x |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1 |
Cox et al. (2006) |
x |
x |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2 |
Dolan et al. (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
x |
|
|
1 |
Edgemon et al. (2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
x |
- |
Fletcher et al. (2006) |
|
x |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1 |
Gibson et al. (2005) |
x |
x |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2 |
Gregg et al. (2005) |
|
x |
|
x |
|
|
|
|
|
2 |
Higgins et al. (2005) |
|
x |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1 |
Horkay et al. (2006) |
|
|
x |
|
|
|
|
|
|
1 |
Horvath et al. (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
x |
- |
Huynh & Barton (2006) |
|
x |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1 |
Kettler et al. (2005) |
x |
x |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2 |
Lang et al. (2005) |
x |
x |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
2 |
Lesaux et al. (2006) |
x |
x |
|
x |
|
|
|
|
|
3 |
Maccini & Gagnon (2006) |
x |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1 |
Mandinach et al.
(2005) |
x |
|
|
x |
|
|
|
|
|
2 |
Meyen et al. (2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
x |
- |
Ofiesh et al. (2005) |
x |
x |
x |
x |
|
|
|
|
|
4 |
Packer (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
x |
- |
Rickey (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
x |
- |
Sahlen & Lehmann (2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
x |
- |
Schnirman (2005) |
x |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1 |
Shaftel et al. (2006) |
x |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1 |
Sireci (2005) |
x |
|
|
x |
|
|
|
|
|
2 |
Sireci et al. (2005) |
x |
x |
x |
x |
x |
x |
|
|
|
6 |
Stretch & Osborne (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
P |
- |
VanWeelden & Whipple (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
P |
|
1 |
N |
17 |
14 |
4 |
9 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
7 |
|
* Other Language Arts assessment
areas include Language Usage,
Verbal, Spelling,
Listening, and Vocabulary.
Top of page
Appendix
D. Participant and Sample
Characteristics
Table D-1. Unit
of Analysis, Total Sample Sizes
(Students, Parents, Schools, Articles,
and Teachers), Grade/Education Level,
and Types of Disabilities
Unit of Analysis |
Studies (Year) |
Sample Size |
Percent of Sample with
Disabilities |
Grade/ Education Level |
Types of Disabilities Exhibited
* |
Students |
Antalek (2005) |
67 |
100% |
High School |
LD |
Students |
Baker (2006) |
127
|
100% |
College (1st
yr) |
LD |
Students |
Bolt & Ysseldyke (2006) |
16,447 gr.3
16,634 gr.4
16,849 gr.7
15,108 gr.8
13,672 gr.10
12,299 gr.11 |
70% gr. 3
70% gr. 4
70% gr. 7
67% gr. 8
63% gr. 10
59% gr. 11
|
3, 4, 7, 8,
10, 11 |
LD, PD, OD |
Students |
Bruins (2006) |
70 gr. 4
82 gr. 8
88 gr. 10
|
50% |
4, 8, 10 |
Type not
documented |
Students |
Cohen et al. (2005) |
2,500 |
50% |
9 |
LD |
Students |
Dolan et al. (2005) |
10 |
100% |
11, 12 |
LD |
Students |
Fletcher et al. (2006) |
182
|
50% |
3 |
RD (dyslexia) |
Students |
Gibson et al. (2005) |
354 |
100% |
4, 8 |
LD, CD, EBD,
PD (visual), OD (autism) |
Students |
Gregg et al. (2005)
|
201 |
50% |
College |
RD (dyslexia) |
Students |
Higgins et al. (2005) |
219 |
0% |
4 |
No
disabilities |
Students |
Horkay et al. (2006) |
4,133 |
0% |
8 |
No
disabilities |
Students |
Horvath et al. (2005) |
9 |
100% |
4, 7, 8, 9 |
PD
(deafblindness) |
Students |
Huynh & Barton (2006) |
89,319 |
4% |
10 |
PD, EBD, LD |
Students |
Kettler et al. (2005) |
118 gr. 4
78 gr. 8
197 total |
42% gr. 4
50% gr. 8 |
4, 8 |
Type not
documented |
Students |
Lang et al. (2005) |
152 gr. 4
142 gr. 8
294 total
|
42% gr. 4
43% gr. 8 |
4, 8 |
Type not
documented |
Students |
Lesaux et al. (2006) |
64 |
34% |
Adults |
RD |
Students |
Mandinach et al. (2005) |
1,929 |
14% |
11 |
LD, OD (ADHD) |
Students |
Ofiesh et al. (2005) |
84 |
51% |
College |
LD |
Students |
Schnirman (2005) |
48 |
50% |
Middle School |
LD |
Students |
Shaftel et al. (2006) |
~2,000 gr.4
~2,000 gr.7
~2,000 gr. 10 |
~30-40% per
grade |
4, 7, 10 |
LD, OD |
Parents |
Packer (2005) |
69 |
Not applicable |
(Children aged
6 -17) |
PD (tics) |
Schools |
Cawthon (2006) |
264 |
Not applicable |
(Children
ranged in grade from 1st-12th) |
PD (deaf/hard
of hearing) |
Articles |
Edgemon et al. (2006) |
Not applicable |
Not applicable |
Elementary,
Middle, High School |
Type not
documented |
Articles |
Meyen et al. (2006) |
Not applicable |
Not applicable |
College |
Type not
documented |
Articles |
Sireci (2005) |
10
|
Not applicable |
High School,
College |
Type not
documented |
Articles |
Sireci et al. (2005) |
59
|
Not applicable |
Not applicable |
Type not documented |
Articles |
Stretch & Osborne (2005) |
42
|
Not applicable |
Not applicable |
Nonspecific,
LD |
Teachers |
Maccini & Gagnon (2006) |
179 |
Not applicable
|
High School |
LD, E/BD |
Teachers/ IEP
teams |
Rickey (2005) |
9 |
Not applicable |
Middle School |
Type not
documented |
Teachers |
VanWeelden&Whipple (2005) |
15 |
Not applicable |
Middle School |
E/BD |
Legal Cases |
Sahlen & Lehmann (2006) |
8 |
Not applicable |
College |
Type not
documented |
States |
Cox et al. (2006) |
18 ES
17 MS
16 HS |
Not reported |
Elementary,
Middle, High School |
Type not
documented |
* Key:
LD (Learning Disability)
PD (Physical Disability)
RD (Reading Deficit)
CD (Cognitive Disability)
EBD (Emotional or Behavioral
Disability)
OD (Other Disability)
Top of page
Appendix E. Accommodations Studied
Table E-1. Accommodations Researched
by Study
Studies (Year) |
Experimental
Accommodations |
Other* |
Presentation |
Timing /
Scheduling |
Setting |
Other |
Oral |
CBT |
S/P |
ExT |
MS |
STS |
SG |
IEP |
Fletcher et al.
(2006)** |
X |
|
|
|
X |
|
|
|
|
Huynh & Barton
(2006) |
X |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Schnirman (2005) |
X |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Dolan et al.
(2005)** |
X |
X |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Bolt & Ysseldyke
(2006)** |
X |
|
|
X |
|
|
X |
|
|
Higgins et al.
(2005)*** |
|
X |
X |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Horkay et al.
(2006) |
|
X |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Antalek (2005) |
|
|
|
X |
|
|
|
|
|
Baker (2006) |
|
|
|
X |
|
|
|
|
|
Cohen et al.
(2005) |
|
|
|
X |
|
|
|
|
|
Lesaux et al.
(2006) |
|
|
|
X |
|
|
|
|
|
Mandinach et al.
(2005)*** |
|
|
|
X |
|
X |
|
|
|
Ofiesh et al.
(2005) |
|
|
|
X |
|
|
|
|
|
Bruins (2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
|
Kettler et al.
(2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
|
Cawthon (2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
Cox et al. (2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
Edgemon et al.
(2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
Gibson et al.
(2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
Gregg et al.
(2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
Horvath et al.
(2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
Lang et al.
(2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
Maccini & Gagnon
(2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
Meyen et al.
(2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
Packer (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
Rickey (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
Sahlen & Lehmann
(2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
Shaftel et al.
(2006) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
Sireci (2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
Sireci et al.
(2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
Stretch & Osborne
(2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
VanWeelden&Whipple
(2005) |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
X |
Total |
5 |
3 |
1 |
7 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
2 |
17 |
Oral = Oral Presentation (partial or
whole)
CBT = Computer-Based Test
S/P = Scrolling or Paging on
Computerized Test
ExT = Extended Time
MS = Multiple Sessions
SG = Small Group/Individual
Administration
STS = Separately Timed Sections
IEP = Various accommodations were
implemented as per individual student
IEPs.
* The seventeen studies in the
“Other” category include research
activities where student performance or
accommodations practices and use were
explored but not experimentally (or
quasi-experimentally) studied.
** These studies examined the effects
of multiple accommodations in bundles.
*** These studies examined the
effects of multiple accommodations
separately.
Table E-2. Specifications for Table
F-1: Nature of Accommodations Research by Study
Studies (Year) |
Specification |
Fletcher et al. (2006) |
Students with and without
dyslexia completed a test under
accommodated (in combination:
two sessions, oral reading of
proper nouns, and oral reading
of comprehension stems) or
non-accommodated (single
administration, no oral reading
of proper nouns or comprehension
stems) conditions. |
Huynh & Barton (2006) |
Students with disabilities
completed a test under
accommodated (oral
administration) or
non-accommodated (no oral
administration) conditions, and
students without disabilities
completed a test under
non-accommodated (no oral
administration) conditions.
|
Schnirman (2005) |
Students with and without
learning disabilities completed
equivalent forms of a test under
accommodated (audiocassette
read-aloud) and non-accommodated
conditions. |
Dolan et al. (2005) |
Students with disabilities
completed equivalent forms of a
test under accommodated (in
combination: computer-based
administration with
text-to-speech technology) and
non-accommodated (paper)
conditions. |
Bolt & Ysseldyke (2006) |
Students with disabilities
completed a test under
accommodated (read-aloud, with
or without extended time and
small group/individual
administration) or
non-accommodated (no read-aloud,
no extended time or small
group/individual administration)
conditions, and students without
disabilities completed a test
under non-accommodated (no
read-aloud) conditions. |
Higgins et al. (2005) |
Students without disabilities
completed a test under
accommodated (either on computer
with scrolling through passages
or on computer with paging
through passages) or
non-accommodated (paper)
conditions. |
Horkay et al. (2006) |
Students without disabilities
completed a test under
accommodated (computer-based
administration) and
non-accommodated (paper)
conditions. |
Antalek (2005) |
Students with and without
learning disabilities were
administered a test under
non-accommodated (timed)
conditions, but were given extra
time if tasks were not completed
in that time. |
Baker (2006) |
Students with disabilities’
scores were compared on whether
the individuals chose to
complete classroom tests under
accommodated (extra time) or
non-accommodated (standard time)
conditions. |
Cohen et al. (2005) |
Students with disabilities
received extra time
accommodations while students
without disabilities completed
the under standard conditions/no
accommodations. |
Lesaux et al. (2006) |
Students with and without
reading disabilities completed a
battery of tests under
accommodated (untimed) and
non-accommodated (timed)
conditions. |
Mandinach et al. (2005) |
Students with and without
disabilities completed a
multi-part test under
accommodated (either) (1) 1 ½
time with separate timing for
individual sections, (2) 1 ½
time with no separate timing for
sections, or (3) double time) or
non-accommodated (standard time)
conditions. |
Ofiesh et al. (2005) |
Students with and without
disabilities completed a battery
of tests under accommodated
(untimed) and non-accommodated
(timed) conditions. |
Bruins (2006) |
Students with disabilities
completed a test under
accommodated (as assigned by
their IEPs) or non-accommodated
(standard) conditions, and
students without disabilities
completed a test under
non-accommodated (standard)
conditions. |
Kettler et al. (2005) |
Students with disabilities took
a test under accommodated
conditions (as assigned by their
IEPs) and students without
disabilities took a test under
non-accommodated conditions.
|
Lang et al. (2005) |
Students with and without
disabilities were placed into
matched pairs and administered
tests under accommodated (as
assigned by IEPs of the SwD) and
non-accommodated conditions, and
were asked to respond to survey
questions about the experience.
Teachers and parents were also
surveyed. |
Cawthon (2006) |
Survey of schools and programs
regarding processes for
identifying assessment
accommodations as well as
implementation and use. |
Cox et al. (2006) |
State
policies on accommodations and
assessment participation rates
for students with disabilities
across states were examined. |
Edgemon et al. (2006) |
Guidelines for accommodations
use in schools are provided for
educators. |
Gibson et al. (2005) |
The
AAC was used to create a common
framework across districts to
compare assessment
accommodations recommended by
IEPs, recommended by teachers,
and actually provided during
testing. |
Gregg et al. (2005) |
Students with and without
disabilities completed a battery
of tests under standard
conditions to try and identify
predictors of the need for
decoding and spelling
accommodations. |
Horvath et al. (2005) |
Survey of students, parents, and
teachers regarding processes for
identifying assessment
accommodations as well as
implementation and use. |
Maccini & Gagnon (2006) |
Survey of teachers regarding
processes for identifying
assessment accommodations as
well as implementation and use. |
Meyen et al. (2006) |
The
use of computer adaptive testing
as an assessment accommodation
is suggested. |
Packer (2005) |
Survey of parents regarding
processes for identifying
assessment accommodations as
well as implementation/use. |
Rickey (2005) |
Survey of students’ IEP teams
regarding processes for
identifying assessment
accommodations as well as
implementation/use. |
Sahlen & Lehmann (2006) |
Eight
court cases regarding requests
for accommodations in higher
education context are reviewed. |
Shaftel et al. (2006) |
Students with and without
disabilities completed a test
under non-accommodated
conditions. |
Sireci (2005) |
10
articles on the effects of
flagging scores from
accommodated administrations
were analyzed. |
Sireci et al. (2005) |
59
articles on the effects of
various accommodations relative
to the interaction hypothesis
were analyzed. |
Stretch & Osborne (2005) |
42
articles on the effects of
extended time were analyzed.
|
VanWeelden&Whipple (2005) |
Survey of preservice teachers’
assessment practices. |
Top of page
Appendix F. Research Findings
Table F-1. Findings for Oral
Accommodations
Oral Accommodations had a
positive effect on scores of
students with disabilities when
bundled with CBT |
Dolan et al. (2005) |
Scores on the computerized-oral
test were significantly
increased over paper scores when
passages were longer than 100
words in length. |
Oral Accommodations had a
positive effect on scores of
students with disabilities when
bundled with multiple sessions |
Fletcher et al. (2006) |
Only SwD benefited from the
accommodations, showing a
significant increase in average
performance and a 7-fold
increase in the odds of passing;
results supported the
interaction hypothesis.
|
Oral Accommodations were
associated with more DIF in
Reading/Language Arts than Math |
Bolt & Ysseldyke (2006) |
A
greater portion of DIF items
were identified for those
students receiving read-aloud
accommodations on a
reading/language arts test than
a math test. Read-aloud
accommodations were found to be
associated with greater
measurement incomparability for
reading/language arts than math. |
Oral Accommodations had no
effect on scores |
Huynh & Barton (2006) |
After controlling for major
background variables, the
performance of students with
disabilities under oral
administration conditions was
comparable to that of students
with disabilities who took the
test under regular
administration conditions. The
internal structure of the HSEE
test remained stable across
students with disabilities and
students without disabilities. |
Schnirman (2005) |
No statistically significant
differences were found between
performance of students with
disabilities and students
without disabilities. |
Table F-2. Findings for Computerized
Test
Computerized Test had a
positive effect on scores of
students with disabilities when
bundled with oral accommodations |
Dolan et al. (2005) |
Scores on the computerized-oral
test were significantly
increased over paper scores when
passages were longer than 100
words in length. |
Computerized Test had no
effect on scores |
Higgins et al. (2005) |
There were no significant
difference in reading
comprehension scores across
testing modes. |
Horkay et al. (2006) |
Results showed no mean
significant differences between
paper and computer delivery. |
Table F-3. Findings for Scrolling vs.
Paging
Scrolling vs. Paging had
no effect on scores |
Higgins et al. (2005) |
There were no significant
difference in reading
comprehension scores across
testing modes. |
Table F-4. Findings for Extended Time
Extended Time had a
positive effect on scores of
students with disabilities |
Antalek (2005) |
The majority of the subjects
took additional time and their
scores on the task improved
significantly, indicating a
relationship between learning
disabilities and the completion
of academic tasks within an
allotted time frame.
|
Baker (2006) |
The group that used extended
time accommodations had an
average first year GPA that was
0.39 points higher
(statistically significant) than
the group that did not use
accommodations. The use of
extended time accounts for 11%
of variance in full year GPA and
7% of overall GPA. |
Lesaux et al. (2006) |
Under timed conditions there
were significant differences
between performance of students
with disabilities and students
without disabilities. All of the
students with disabilities
benefited from extra time, but
students without disabilities
performed comparably under timed
and untimed conditions. Also,
students with disabilities (less
severe) performed comparably to
students without disabilities in
untimed conditions. |
Extended Time had a
positive effect on all student
scores |
Mandinach et al. (2005) |
Results indicated that time and
a half with separately timed
sections benefits students with
disabilities and students
without disabilities, though
some extra time improves
performance and too much may be
detrimental. Extended time
benefits medium and high ability
students but provides little or
no advantage to low-ability
students. |
Use of Extended Time did
not explain DIF |
Cohen et al. (2005) |
Some items exhibited DIF under
accommodated (extended time)
conditions, but students for
whom items functioned
differently were not accurately
characterized by their
accommodation status but rather
content knowledge. |
DIF for read-aloud and
extended time was consistent
with DIF for read-aloud only |
Bolt & Ysseldyke (2006) |
Read-aloud accommodations and
extended time were found to be
associated with a comparable
level of DIF relative to the use
of read-aloud only, and these
results were consistent across
both reading and math. |
Table F-5. Findings for Multiple Days
/ Sessions
Multiple Days/Sessions had
a positive effect on scores of
students with disabilities when
bundled with oral admin.
|
Fletcher et al. (2006) |
Only students with disabilities
benefited from the
accommodations, showing a
significant increase in average
performance and a 7-fold
increase in the odds of passing;
results supported the
interaction hypothesis.
|
Table F-6. Findings for Separately
Timed Sessions
Separately Timed Sessions
had a positive effect on all
student scores |
Mandinach et al. (2005) |
Results indicated that
time-and-a-half with separately
timed sections benefits students
with disabilities and students
without disabilities, though
some extra time improves scores;
too much may be detrimental.
Extended time benefits
medium/high ability students but
provides little or no advantage
to low-ability students.
|
Table F-7. Findings for Small Group
Administration
DIF for read-aloud and
small group administration was
consistent with DIF for
read-aloud only |
Bolt & Ysseldyke (2006) |
Read-aloud accommodations and
small group administration were
found to be associated with a
comparable level of DIF relative
to the use of read-aloud only,
and these results were
consistent across both reading
and math. |
Table F-8. Findings for IEP-Assigned
Accommodations
IEP-Assigned
Accommodations had a positive
effect on scores |
Kettler et al. (2005) |
Students with disabilities
benefited from accommodations
more than students without
disabilities, and the
differential benefit was higher
on Reading than Math.
|
Effect of IEP-Assigned
Accommodations had no positive
effect |
Bruins (2006) |
Significant differences were
found between the performance of
general education students and
students with disabilities, and
the use of IEP-assigned
accommodations did not have a
positive effect on scores of
students with disabilities.
|
IEP-Assigned
Accommodations are perceived as
fair |
Lang et al. (2005) |
Parents and teachers perceive
accommodations as fair and valid
for students with disabilities.
More students with disabilities
than students without
disabilities indicated that
accommodations made test
condition easier, more
comfortable, and better
indicator of knowledge. |
Table F-9. Findings for Meta-Analyses
of Accommodations Practices
More empirical research
needed |
Sireci (2005) |
Current research and practice
with respect to flagging scores
from accommodated
administrations is insufficient. |
Sireci et al. (2005) |
Research does not provide clear
guidance because of the variety
of accommodations studied, how
they are operationalized in
research, and variations in
samples. |
Stretch & Osborne (2005) |
Recommendations for research:
Find better estimates of
ability; determine if tests are
appropriate; consider inclusion
of students with disabilities in
samples; understand tentative
nature of scores from
accommodated tests; weigh
quality of information source. |
Accommodations have a
positive effect on scores of
students with disabilities |
Sireci et al. (2005) |
Accommodation (extended time)
tends to have a positive effect
on scores of students with
disabilities. Accommodation
(oral) tends to have a positive
effect on scores of students
with disabilities. |
Table F-10. Findings for Prediction
of Need for Accommodations
Tests of interest aid in
identifying need for
accommodations |
Gregg et al. (2005) |
Study provides strong evidence
for the usefulness of the WJ III
Cognitive Abilities clusters in
predicting reading decoding and
spelling performance of the
postsecondary population with
dyslexia. |
Ofiesh et al. (2005) |
The findings indicated
significant group differences on
all speeded cognitive, reading,
and academic tests (with few
exceptions). The WJ III Reading
Fluency and Academic Fluency
tests were the best predictors
of students with disabilities
needing extra time. |
Table F-11. Findings for Selection
and Implementation of Accommodations
Lack of alignment with IEP |
Horvath et al. (2005) |
Provided accommodations were not
always tailored to their needs;
class, test, and IEP
accommodations did not always
match up. |
Some accommodations are
more common than others |
Cawthon (2006) |
The most prevalent test
accommodations reported by
schools/programs for students
with disabilities
(deaf/hard-of-hearing) included
extended time, interpreter for
directions, and a separate
location. Read-aloud and signed
Q-R were prevalent also but used
more in math assessments than
reading. Mainstream students
with disabilities used
accommodations more than those
in schools for deaf/school or
district programs. |
Cox et al. (2006) |
States with more unrestricted
accommodations tend to have (1)
higher percentages of students
with disabilities participating
in regular NCLB assessments and
(2) lower discipline rates.
|
Gibson et al. (2005) |
Some accommodations get
used/recommended over others;
scheduling and setting are most
commonly recommended; challenges
to implementation were
identified; AAC Category 2 and 3
accommodations were frequently
recommended and used, but
caution should be taken. |
Packer (2005) |
Most common test accommodations
for students with disabilities
(tics) reported by parents
included ET, separate location,
answer recording in any way, and
several others. |
Language characteristics
have no disproportionate impact
on Students with Disabilities
|
Shaftel et al. (2006) |
Linguistic features of items
have a greater effect for
younger students, but no impact
was found for students with
disabilities. |
Educators and institutions
vary in their accommodations use |
Maccini & Gagnon (2006) |
Teachers vary in their use of
test accommodations (special
education vs. general
education); special
education-trained teachers use
more accommodations and number
of methods course predict use.
No differences in use of
extended time, calculator, and
read-aloud. |
Sahlen & Lehmann (2006) |
In developing policies about
accommodations use, institutions
need to consider their legal
responsibility, the students’
responsibility, the policy
structure of the institution,
the students’ request(s) for
accommodations, and the context
of the course. |
VanWeelden & Whipple (2005) |
Teachers were able to administer
tests with accommodations to
students with disabilities (EDBD,
CCD) and implement alternate
assessments. |
Determining appropriate
assessment accommodations is a
complex and collaborative
undertaking |
Edgemon et al. (2006) |
Research on accommodations can
provide insight into the steps
that IEP teams should follow in
making decisions about
accommodations. Students should
be evaluated as individuals,
teachers should be aware of how
accommodations change the
construct of interest, and
accommodations should match the
testing format. |
Meyen et al. (2006) |
Students with disabilities need
assessments tailored to their
performance level, and adaptive
testing is one strategy that
should be considered for the
potential to lead to improved
measurement for these students.
|
Rickey (2005) |
The IEP team, especially special
education teacher, must be
recognized as responsible for
making decisions regarding the
education of students with
disabilities. Test
accommodations should exhibit a
clear connection to classroom
accommodations, and goals in
process of identifying
accommodations need to be
articulated. |
Top of page
Appendix G. Limitations and Future Research
Table G-1. Authors’ Limitations by
Study and Limitation Category
Study |
Sample
characteristics |
Test/Test
Context |
Methodology |
Results |
Antalek (2005) |
Size and composition of sample |
|
|
|
Baker (2006) |
(1) Homogeneity of sample may
limit generalizability.
(2)
Missing data in data archives.
|
|
Limitations of sample size did
not allow breakdown by type of
learning disability. |
|
Bolt & Ysseldyke (2006) |
|
Results could not be evaluated
across grades due to changes in
difficulty and constructs. |
(1) Study design is not
counterbalanced with same
students.
(2) There was no
formal control for standardized
implementation of
accommodations. |
|
Bruins (2006)* |
|
|
|
|
Cawthon (2006) |
(1) Over-representation of
schools for deaf and settings in
South.
(2) Low response rate. |
|
(1) Use of schools/ program as
unit of analysis.
(2) Retrospective nature of
data collection.
(3) Incomplete surveys. |
|
Cohen et al. (2005)* |
|
|
|
|
Cox et al. (2006) |
Lack of reliable data from all
fifty states. |
|
Absence of data linking
performance to accommodations. |
|
Dolan et al. (2005) |
|
|
(1) Did not address interaction
hypothesis.
(2) Possible novelty effect
for CBT. |
|
Edgemon et al. (2006)* |
|
|
|
|
Fletcher et al. (2006) |
|
|
|
Results are only generalizable
to similar students. |
Gibson et al. (2005)* |
|
|
|
|
Gregg et al. (2005)* |
|
|
|
|
Higgins et al. (2005) |
(1) Small sample size.
(2)
Volunteer recruitment for
participation: Sample
potentially biased toward CBT
using-schools and high SES. |
Low number of passages and
items. |
|
|
Horkay et al. (2006) |
(1) Single grade.
(2)
Divergence from NAEP sampling
frame
|
Only two essay tasks. |
(1) Paper and CBT administration
were not at the same time.
(2)
Differences in scorer
reliability across modes. |
(1) Other factors in addition to
computer familiarity. |
Horvath et al. (2005) |
Small sample size. |
|
|
|
Huynh & Barton (2006) |
No LEP or ELL students involved. |
|
Test was untimed for all
students (thus results may not
generalize to extra time
accommo-dations situations). |
|
Kettler et al. (2005) |
Only two grade levels. |
Only two content areas. |
Failure to operationalize
accommodations and
implementation. |
Inability to explain why some
performance was worse under
accommodations. |
Lang et al. (2005) |
(1) Limited diversity of sample.
(2) No knowledge of students
without disabilities group
variability.
(3) High variability within
students with disabilities
group–for example,
accmmodations were ID’d for
individuals not by disability
type. |
Low-stakes testing context. |
|
|
Lesaux et al. (2006)* |
|
|
|
|
Maccini & Gagnon (2006) |
(1) Small sample size.
(2) Unknown heterogeneity/
homogeneity of classrooms.
(3) Low response rate. |
|
(1) No way to compare
respondents with nonrespondents.
(2) Instructional practices list
could limit responses. |
|
Mandinach et al. (2005) |
(1) Small sample of disabled
participants.
(2) LD group
could not be separated from
ADHD.
(3) Voluntary participation
raises questions about
motivation.
(4) Attrition of sample.
|
|
(1) Small numbers meant high and
medium ability groups were
combined, thus ability groups
within students with
disabilities / students without
disabilities were not parallel.
(2) Hard to ensure schools
follow research protocol. |
|
Meyen et al. (2006)* |
|
|
|
|
Ofiesh et al. (2005) |
|
(1) Limited to standardized
reading MC test (not essay or
other formats).
(2) Hard to generalize due to
lack of consistency across tests
used in higher education
settings. |
|
|
Packer (2005) |
|
|
Limited in type of information
to be collected via survey. |
|
Rickey (2005) |
(1) Only exemplary schools were
selected for use.
(2) Small
sample. |
Only involved large-scale
assessments, not alternate
assessments. |
Qualitative study, so it is
descriptive and no
recommendations are provided and
it does not address questions
about the effectiveness of
particular accommodations. |
|
Sahlen & Lehman (2006)* |
|
|
|
|
Schnirman (2005) |
Low academic language
proficiency in sample. |
|
|
Floor effect. |
Shaftel et al. (2006) |
Only these three grade levels. |
(1) Limited to one state’s test.
(2) Results cannot be
generalized to other content
areas. |
Test item analyses could not be
combined across grade levels. |
|
Sireci (2005)* |
|
|
|
|
Sireci et al. (2005) |
(1) Small, ethnically
homogeneous samples.
(2) Much research only
involves elementary school.
|
|
|
|
Stretch & Osborne (2005)* |
|
|
|
|
VanWeelden & Whipple (2005)* |
|
|
|
|
* Those studies marked with an
asterisk did not identify limitations.
Table G-2. Authors’ Future Research
Directions by Study and Future Research
Category
Study |
Sample/Setting |
Test/Test
Context |
Methodology |
Results |
Antalek (2005) |
|
|
|
Study relationship between
specific LD attributes and the
ability to craft written
language. |
Baker (2006) |
(1) Study other types of
postsecondary institutions.
(2) Study student groups (by
age, gender, ability levels,
disability classifications).
|
|
Examine other factors that
influence GPA (such as other
accommodations, personality
characteristics, study habits,
drug/alcohol use, and social
factors). |
|
Bolt & Ysseldyke (2006) |
|
Explore patterns to DIF and seek
explanations. |
|
(1) Determine if read-aloud
results in better measure-ment
than if no accommodations at all
are provided.
(2) Understand
potential relationship of other
variables in impacting
effectiveness of testing
accommo-dations, including
appropriateness for all
students. |
Bruins (2006) |
|
|
(1) Track performance change in
cohort over time.
(2) Study
effects of specific
accommodations.
(3) Compare state
account-ability workbooks.
|
|
Cawthon (2006) |
Diversify samples of schools and
programs. |
|
(1) Interaction of student-,
school-, and state-level
characteristics.
(2) Obtain
more specific data on
accommodations use from
respondents. |
Explore effect of read-aloud,
signed q-r and out-of-level
testing on validity and score
reporting. |
Cohen et al. (2005) |
|
|
|
Multidimensionality suggests
review of how to universally
design tests. |
Cox et al. (2006) |
|
|
|
More research into
“controversial” accommodations. |
Dolan et al. (2005) |
|
Involve other subject areas. |
|
(1) Further understand effects
of training.
(2) Additional
accommodations. |
Edgemon et al. (2006)* |
|
|
|
|
Fletcher et al. (2006) |
(1) Involve participants from
wider age range.
(2) Increase
variability of reading
difficulties exhibited in
sample. |
|
(1) Assess students more
thoroughly on other reading
skills.
(2) Focus on types of reading
skills required by different
tests.
(3) Unpackage accommodations
and evaluate in isolation.
|
|
Gibson et al. (2005) |
|
|
|
Explore how IEP teams can be
used to support selection/
implementation of
accommodations. |
Gregg et al. (2005) |
|
|
Explore differences between
performance of SwD and Sw/oD on
specific item types. |
More validity studies are needed
to determine effectiveness of WJ
III Cognitive Fluency cluster. |
Higgins et al. (2005) |
(1) Larger, more diverse sample.
(2) Other grade levels. |
Add passages and items (to
improve reliability). |
|
|
Horkay et al. (2006) |
|
|
Possible unfamiliarity with NAEP
laptops and variability of
school computers. |
|
Horvath et al. (2005)* |
|
|
|
|
Huynh & Barton (2006) |
|
|
|
Examine effects of
accommodations for students
without disabilities. |
Kettler et al. (2005) |
|
|
(1) Operationalize
accommodations.
(2) Use
single-case methods to study
accommodations. |
Study interaction between
individual participants, tasks,
and accommodations. |
Lang et al. (2005) |
Look at parental perceptions of
accommodations. |
Explore issues in context of
high-stakes testing. |
Examine perceptions of specific
types of accommodations. |
|
Lesaux et al. (2006) |
|
|
|
(1) Further examine relation
between word reading ability,
comprehension speed, and
performance.
(2) Seek further insights
into reading, vocab, and
short-term memory under timed/
untimed conditions. |
Maccini & Gagnon (2006) |
(1) Larger samples.
(2) Identify types of methods
classes taken by respondents.
|
|
Expand possible predictors list
to assess reported instructional
practices and accommodations. |
Explore how test accommodations
appropriate in type and number
for students and aligned to
state policies. |
Mandinach et al. (2005) |
Break out LD and ADHD
participants. |
Examine other tests. |
(1) Randomize order of sections.
(2) Include a double-time
condition with section breaks
for balance.
(3) Obtain better/more
reliable estimates of time use
across sections. |
(1) Examine effects of section
break accomm-odation in
isolation.
(2) Research
section break accommodation for
functioning as intended.
|
Meyen et al. (2006) |
|
|
The effectiveness of CAT in
assessing the performance of
students with high-incidence
disabilities should be
researched. |
|
Ofiesh et al. (2005) |
|
|
|
(1) Clarify how test scores help
justify and support need for
extended time.
(2) Study relationship
between speeded cognitive tasks
and academic tasks. |
Packer (2005) |
|
|
Carry out controlled research
with objective measures to
assess effectiveness of specific
accommodations. |
Examine the effects of other
accommodations, besides extra
time. |
Rickey (2005)* |
Focus on the variable impact of
accommodations for individual
students with specific needs. |
|
|
(1) Focus on the validity of
accommodations and the results
obtained via their use.
(2)
Explore the extent to which
accommodations reduce
stress/anxiety for students with
disabilities. |
Sahlen & Lehmann (2006)* |
|
|
|
|
Schnirman (2005)* |
|
|
|
|
Shaftel et al. (2006) |
|
|
Create pairs of items in word
problem and computation format. |
(1) Evaluate cognitive
consistency of original and
simplified math items.
(2)
Focus on the relationship
between achievement in content
areas and language proficiency. |
Sireci (2005) |
|
Build tests not needing
accommodations. |
Include multiple sources of
validity. |
(1) Evaluate consequences of
flagging/not flagging.
(2)
Possibly equate scores from
accommodated/ nonaccommodated
administrations. |
Sireci et al. (2005) |
Future studies should:
(1) Increase sample size.
(2) Diversify samples.
(3) Add in more grades. |
|
|
(1) Research validity of
interpretations from standard/
nonstandard administrations.
(2) Collect a variety of
forms of evidence.
(3) Evaluate benefits of
universal test design, including
technology. |
Stretch & Osborne (2005) |
|
(1) Identify ways to develop
tests that measure construct of
interest not speededness.
(2)
Identify ways in test
development to potentially
reduce need for accommodations. |
(1) Examine interaction of
giftedness and timed tasks. |
(1) Well-controlled valid
research needed to demonstrate
differential boost. |
VanWeelden & Whipple (2005)* |
|
|
|
|
* Those studies marked with a ‘*’ did
not identify directions for future
research.
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