Grade-Level Standards-Based Science Outcomes for English Language Learners and Language Minority Students: A Review of the LiteratureLEP Projects Report 6 Kristin Kline Liu April 2009 All rights reserved. Any or all portions of this document may be reproduced and distributed without prior permission, provided the source is cited as: Liu, K. K. (2009). Grade-level standards-based science outcomes for English language learners and language minority students: A review of the literature (LEP Projects Report 6). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, National Center on Educational Outcomes. Retrieved [today's date], from the World Wide Web: http://cehd.umn.edu/NCEO/OnlinePubs/LEP6/ Introduction Science is now entering the spotlight, after a time of standards-based education reform focused almost solely on increasing reading and math achievement for all students. There are many different sets of science standards that could be used to guide instructional decision making in a K-12 classroom. The publication of A Nation at Risk in the 1980s raised national concern about a possible crisis in the state of U.S. public education. In response, in 1993 the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAS) published Science for All Americans (the predecessor to Benchmarks for Science Literature), followed a few years later by the National Research Council’s publication of the National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1999). Scientists, science educators, and policymakers participated in creating these visions of what higher standards for science teaching and learning could look like. An analysis of these "national" standards showed that there are 147 K-12 science standards between the two documents, with a high degree of similarity in content (Marzano & Kendall, 1998; Saderholm & Tretter, 2008). During that same time period, concerns over a widening achievement gap between subgroups of students spurred a call for greater educational equity (McClure, 2005). The 1994 reauthorization of Title I legislation, as well as the No Child Left Behind Act in 2001, mandated that every state create challenging content standards and assessments to measure student attainment of those standards in reading, math, and science. Assessments were required first in reading and math, and later, in 2007, for science. Science for All Americans and the National Science Education Standards have received a great deal of attention, and have had a lasting impact on the ways teachers define good science teaching (Lauer, Snow, Martin-Glenn, Van Buhler, Stoutemyer, & Snow-Renner, 2005). Both sets of standards emphasized the importance of learning scientific inquiry processes. In doing so, these standards required educators to shift from a teacher-directed classroom where a teacher transmitted scientific facts to students, to a more student-directed classroom in which students were active participants constructing their own learning. In spite of the importance of the National Science Education Standards and Science for All Americans, state science standards, as mandated by federal legislation, are the ones that directly impact daily life in schools and classrooms because of the accountability requirements attached to them. While state standards may bear some resemblance to national science standards, there may be areas of difference as well. Starting in 2007, all states are required to assess student attainment of science standards at least once in grades 3 through 5, once in grades 7 through 9, and once in grades 10 through 12. Patterns of differential science achievement between subgroups of students (e.g., English language learners, students with disabilities, students in various ethnic or racial categories, students from low socioeconomic backgrounds, migrant students, etc.) are cause for concern and must be addressed through changes in programs, services, and curricula as well as through instruction. According to Lee and Luykx (2007) this new accountability for science teaching and learning has an unprecedented power to change the field. In many states and
school districts, the first round of
state science test scores have recently
been made public and discussion of
potential changes in science instruction
are already underway. As we stand on the
brink of a time of change and look
ahead, English language learners (ELLs)
are a group that warrants specific
attention in the science classroom.
Because science instruction is primarily
conducted in English—the language that
ELLs are learning—English proficiency is
a major factor related to science
outcomes for these students (Lee & Luykx,
2007). As Lee (2004) states, "A
challenge facing teachers of students
acquiring English as a new language
(English language learners; ELLs) is
enabling these students to learn
academic content across subject areas,
as the students simultaneously acquire
English language and literacy" (p.65).
Given the challenges that we know exist
for educators instructing these
students, the question arises, what do
we know about their outcomes in
standards-based science at this point in
time? This review focuses on what
peer-reviewed research literature tells
us about standards-based science
outcomes for ELLs, along with the
broader group of students who speak a
language other than English at home
(also known as language minority
students) and who may have been an ELL
at one time. Earlier reviews addressed
the issues of science for diverse
students (Lee, 2005; Lee & Luykx, 2006,
2007) and standards-based science
outcomes for native-English speaking
students (Lauer, Snow, Martin-Glenn, Van
Buhler, Stoutemyer, & Snow-Renner,
2005). No previous review has combined
the two topics. Theoretical Framework for this Review Federal legislation
that mandates content standards and
accountability is based on a broad
policy-level model of educational
improvement. That model, the Expanded
Theory of Action of Standards-based
Reform: An Education Improvement System
(NRC, 1999), is shown in Figure 1. Figure 1. Expanded Model of the Theory of Action of Standards-Based Reform: An Education Improvement System (NRC, 1999)
Figure 1 communicates the idea that content standards clearly define what all students should know and what schools should teach (NRC, 1999). Standards also act as benchmarks for assessing student attainment of the standards. Standards-based assessments give educators, students, and parents information about student progress toward that attainment. According to the NRC (1999), the most useful tests for this purpose are those that are sensitive to instruction. Teachers are given freedom to design instructional programs, but they must be accountable for student learning as measured by those standards-based assessments (NRC, 1999). Incorporated into the Theory of Action is the belief that teachers will use effective instructional practices if they have flexibility to do what they think best and if they are motivated to work hard. The assumption is that if teachers are motivated, they will change classroom teaching so that all students can learn, instead of assuming that some students will not learn. In addition to motivation, teachers need professional development to support them in learning new practices. In this theory of action, when the different components of reform are all in play at the same time, higher levels of learning result (NRC, 1999). The Expanded Model of
the Theory of Action of Standards-based
Reform is useful for guiding
instructional policy at a broad level.
However, it is less useful for guiding
educational research on standards-based
reform for particular groups of students
because it does not reach down into the
classroom. This theory of action also
does not account for who linguistically
and culturally diverse students are and
how their characteristics influence
instruction. For the purposes of this
paper, an adapted version of Creemer’s
Comprehensive Model of Educational
Effectiveness (Creemers & Kyriakides,
2008) incorporates elements of the
Expanded Theory of Action of
Standards-based Reform (NRC, 1999) into
a multi-level model better suited for
research purposes. Some additional
factors have been added to the model to
account for the learning of ELLs and
language minority students who speak a
language other than English (e.g.,
cultural background, English
proficiency). Figure 2 shows the adapted
model which is titled the Theory of
Educational Effectiveness Under
Standards-Based Reform. Figure 2. Revised Theory of Educational Effectiveness under Standards-based Reform (Adapted from NRC 1999; Creemers & Kyriakides 2008)
The key attribute of this model is that multiple levels within the education system are represented and each one creates conditions that support the level beneath it (Creemers & Kyriakides, 2008). At the top of the diagram, national and state policy on standards, assessment, and accountability include both federal and state legislation, state content standards, and standards-based assessments for accountability purposes. At the school level, rules and policies about standards-based instruction in an individual building (e.g., grading policies, mandatory classroom routines or instruction practices, use of technology, etc.) combine with teacher professional development to create conditions that support teachers as well as motivating them to work hard. Motivated teachers go in to the classroom where elements related to high quality instruction (e.g., curriculum use, teacher behavior, grouping procedures, etc.) come into focus. Teacher practice, as represented by the double-ended arrow between student factors and the classroom, is influenced by characteristics of the students in the class. Good teachers adapt instruction to meet the instructional needs of their students. At the same time, high quality instruction may influence characteristics of the students, such as their perseverance, their likes and dislikes, the time they spend focused on learning tasks, their content area language proficiency, and their overall opportunity to learn in the classroom. The classroom-level factors, as shown by the bold arrow, are the most important contributors to improved student outcomes, but as in Creemers’ original model (Creemers & Kyriakides, 2008), all of the levels in the system have a role to play. Student outcomes incorporate higher levels of learning, but in this model outcomes are defined broadly, as suggested by Lee and Luykx (2007), to also include cognitive, affective, psychomotor, linguistic, and other types of outcomes such as science course taking patterns. A word of caution is in order here about the differences between a school effectiveness model and a standards-based model. Creemers’ original Comprehensive Model of School Effectiveness identified student factors as possible predictors of student outcomes (Creemers & Kyriakides, 2008, p. 43). In a standards-based system educators need to thoroughly understand the characteristics of the students they serve in order to design appropriate instruction, but the emphasis is on supporting the achievement of all students regardless of their characteristics and background. As former Secretary of Education Rod Paige once said in reference to the power of standards-based reform to increase outcomes for all students: We must let go of the myths and perceptions about who can learn and who can’t… Anyone who’s been in education as long as I have has heard all the excuses. ‘Those kids’ are too poor. ‘Those kids’ are too disadvantaged. We’re doing the best we can with ‘those kids.’ What they’re really saying is: We don’t believe intellectual heft is in the DNA of poor and minority children…Teachers who believe that certain social groups are slower to learn and react by lowering the bar for performance rob those children of opportunities to grow intellectually and achieve their dreams. (Paige, 2003) These words are applicable to the instruction of ELLs and language minority students as well. We cannot help them meet standards in science if we do not first believe they are capable of meeting them with appropriate instruction. In Figure 2, as in Creemer’s original model, the key elements that relate to higher levels of learning are the quality of instruction, time on task, and opportunity to learn (Creemers & Kyriakides, 2008). These items are bolded at the level in which they have been placed in the diagram, but every level of the system plays a role in developing conditions that sustain them. The Revised Theory of Educational Effectiveness under Standards-based Reform (Figure 2) acts as a guide for this review of the standards-based science outcomes literature for language minority students and ELLs. It suggests that studies addressing any one or combination of the levels within the system (national/state policy, school, classroom, and student) are important to examine because they all, jointly, influence science outcomes for students. At the same time, the model emphasizes the central role of classroom instruction. Furthermore, the model suggests that, while cognitive outcome as measured by science test scores may be prioritized in standards-based reform, other kinds of related outcomes must be considered as well. Affective outcomes such as attitudes toward science and psychomotor outcomes such as science inquiry skills (e.g., using scientific tools to take measurements) are also deserving of attention. Content of Standards When discussing
standards-based science outcomes for
language minority students and ELLs it
is important to consider what states
actually require students to know and be
able to do. Table 1 shows the broad
categories addressed by 7th
grade science standards in five states
that were selected because they have
sizeable populations of language
minority students and ELLs. Table 1. Science Standards from 5 Selected States
From this table it is possible to see that in all five states there are two major categories of science standards: those that relate to knowledge of specific science content (declarative knowledge) and those that relate to knowledge of science processes (procedural knowledge). The majority of these states require all 7th graders, including language minority students and ELLs, to learn concepts in the areas of biology/life sciences, physical sciences (including chemistry and physics), and earth science. The states in the table appear to define these areas somewhat differently. For example, state 2 has a broad standard in the area of Life Science while State 3 has more detailed standards that address the relationship between structure and function in living systems or the relationship between organisms and the environment. The five states in the table also require demonstration of scientific processes. Two states specifically mention the ability to perform scientific inquiry procedures as part of their standards, while others mention inquiry procedures in the more detailed benchmarks not shown here. Although definitions of inquiry may vary as well, inquiry often includes skills involved in identifying a problem to study, formulating hypotheses or research questions, designing and implementing a research study, and collecting, analyzing and communicating data (cf. Stoddart, Pinal, Latzke & Canaday, 2002). Inquiry procedures can be relatively unstructured and student-led or they can be structured in advance by the teacher (Cuevas, Lee, Hart & Deaktor, 2005; Lee, 2003; Lee, Buxton, Lewis & LeRoy, 2006). In addition to the common content and process standards, a few of the five states shown in Table 1 list additional standards in either science content or processes. For example, State 5 requires students to know the characteristics of scientific knowledge and the roles of theories, laws, hypotheses, and models. In contrast, State 4 requires students to understand the historical relationships between science and technology. While standards related to scientific language are not immediately apparent in the table, knowledge of scientific vocabulary and discourse patterns is embedded into the more detailed descriptions of what students need to know and do to achieve each standard. These detailed descriptions are often called benchmarks and several benchmarks may relate to one broader standard. For example, state 3 has a broad standard requiring 7th graders to understand the properties, structures, and processes of living things, as well as the interrelationship of living things and their environment. Under that standard state 3 includes the following benchmark: Know how to classify organisms: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species. In this state, language minority students and ELLs, along with native English speaking students, would need to learn the vocabulary words "domain", "kingdom", "phylum", "class", "order", "family", "genus", and "species" in order to correctly classify organisms. In state 3 the following standard not only requires students to learn particular vocabulary items, but also asks them to internalize a Western scientific way of thinking about catastrophic events and to communicate that Western explanation. Science concepts. The student knows that natural events and human activity can alter Earth systems. The student is expected to: (A) Describe and predict the impact of different catastrophic events on the Earth; (B) Analyze effects of regional erosional deposition and weathering; and (C) Make inferences and draw conclusions about effects of human activity on Earth’s renewable, non-renewable, and inexhaustible resources. Some language minority students and ELLs may come from a culture where natural disasters are explained as acts of an angry god or punishments for human misbehavior rather than scientific phenomena (Lee, 2003). For such students, switching to a Western scientific view of these phenomena requires more than simply learning facts, it requires a shift in values and beliefs as well (Lee, 2003). In addition, this standard also requires students to understand and use scientific discourse patterns (e.g., using evidence to support predictions and conclusions, making inferences, etc.) as part of demonstrating the knowledge of content. Looking at samples of science standards provides important context for reviewing studies of standards-based science outcomes. These selected state standards illustrate the kinds of areas in which language minority students and ELLs need to demonstrate academic achievement and provides examples of some of the specific content and skills they may need to learn. Procedure for Obtaining and Reviewing Literature A multi-step search procedure identified literature on science outcomes or language minority students and ELLs. First, a library meta-search engine that could search multiple databases at the same time was used to look for articles in databases such as ERIC, Educational Full Text, PsycInfo, and Linguistics and Language. Search terms included combinations such as science and English language learners, science and language minority students, science and bilingual students, science and senior high, science and junior high, science achievement and student outcomes, etc. Second, reference lists of identified articles were scanned for additional resources. Finally, an Internet search using combinations of search terms similar to those used with the meta-search engine was used to verify that the relevant articles had been located. The following criteria were used to determine which articles to review: 1. Peer reviewed journal articles—The intent of this paper is to review the status of science outcomes as described in peer reviewed journal articles. 2. Publication dates between 1994, the year of federal legislation mandating state standards, and 2008. 3. Research conducted within the United States in kindergarten through 12th grade (K-12) settings. 4. Research participants were either K-12 students or their teachers. 5. The article had to contain student science outcomes or science outcomes as reported by teachers. The scope of outcomes for this review was intentionally broad and included grades, test scores, attitudes toward science, course taking patterns, and other affective, linguistic, or psychomotor outcomes. 6. The science outcomes had to pertain directly to ELLs or language minority students. Studies were not included in this review if the ethnicity of students was the only identifying factor (e.g., Hispanic, Asian). From this search process, 22 articles were identified that met all of the study criteria (see Appendix A for a complete listing). They were all reviewed, regardless of whether outcomes were standards-based or not, in the belief that the total group of studies would have something to say about the priorities and interests of researchers in the field. A study coding sheet was used to highlight the research design of each study along with the theoretical and conceptual frameworks underlying the research and the links between the research and standards-based instruction or outcomes. Study Findings The 22 studies included in this review represent diverse research perspectives, and a multitude of research designs (see Appendix A for a complete listing of studies, research methods, measures, study samples, and findings). These studies described a variety of outcomes, and represented varying degrees of connection to state standards. Some studies followed rigorous research procedures while others did not. Six studies that included ELLs or language minority students, along with other students, in the study sample did not provide disaggregated data for ELLs or language minority students, limiting the conclusions that could be made based on the data (Bouchey, 2004; Bouchey & Harter, 2005; Hadi-Tabassum, 1999; Lau & Roeser, 2002; Maheady, Michielli-Pendl, Harter & Mallette, 2006; Varelas, Pappas, Kane, Arsenault, Hankes & Cowan, 2007). As a result of this tremendous variability, it is difficult to make strong statements about the conclusions that can be drawn from this small but growing body of literature. Links to State Standards Appendix B shows each of the 22 studies included in this review, the outcomes associated with each study, and whether those outcomes had a connection to state standards. A number of studies were linked to either national science tests such as the National Assessment of Educational Progress (Lau & Roeser, 2002; Lee et al., 2008b; Lee et al., 2008c; Lee et al., 2005; Luykx et al., 2007) or to the national science standards published by different groups (Lynch et al., 2002). Because state and national science standards may be very different, this review begins with a look specifically at the peer-reviewed literature pertaining to state standards. A total of nine studies addressed outcomes related to state standards. These were: Amaral et al. (2002) Lee et al. (2008b) Lee et al. (2008c) Lee et al. (2005) Luykx et al. (2007) Lynch et al. (2002) Maheady et al. (2006) Rivera & Stansfield (2003-2004) Torres & Zeidler (2002) Cognitive Outcomes Standards-based measures of outcomes were usually associated with the cognitive domain. These outcomes typically were in the form of scores on state tests (Amaral et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2008b; Lee et al., 2008c; Rivera & Stansfield, 2003-2004; Torres & Zeidler, 2002) or researcher-developed tests based on curricula aligned with state standards (Lee, Deaktor, et al., 2008b, Lee et al., 2005; Maheady et al., 2006). Two studies linking curricula with state test scores (Amaral et al., 2002; Lee et al., 2008c) indicated that test scores went up after implementation of an inquiry-focused curriculum based on state standards. However, only one of these studies (Amaral et al., 2002) reported state science test scores. Lee et al. (2008c) reported increases in math test scores because there was no state science test at the time of their study and the science curriculum that was implemented for the study incorporated math skills. While documented increases in state test scores are positive signs of improved classroom practices and student learning, neither study made clear how far ELLs and language minority students still were from passing state tests because the studies only focused on the amount of gain students made. Of the three studies that reported scores on researcher-developed assessments aligned with state standards (Lee et al., 2008b, Lee et al., 2005; Maheady et al., 2006), Maheady et al. (2006) did not break down test results to show specifically the performance of the ELLs in the sample. The two related studies by Lee and colleagues (Lee et al., 2008b; Lee et al., 2005) showed a significant increase in standards-related test scores for ELLs and language minority students after implementation of the same inquiry-based curriculum across multiple years. In addition to explicit teaching of inquiry skills, the curriculum included a scientific language component that the researchers believed to be successful. In spite of the increase in test scores, ELLs and language minority students still scored well below other groups of students in the study. It was unclear whether their level of performance may, perhaps, have been well below what standards required for that grade level. The authors did not address the issue. The gaps in performance levels between ELLs or language minority students and other students tended to narrow a bit for students who had participated in the standards-based curriculum for two years, but gaps still remained. Rivera and Stansfield (2003-2004) studied the effect of simplification of the language of state science test items on the performance of ELLs and non ELLs in one state. There were so few ELLs enrolled in K-12 schools in the state, and so few participating in the state science test, that no definitive conclusions were made about the effect of linguistic simplification for these students. Affective and Other Outcomes Studies that only measured affective outcomes such as perceptions of science-related creativity or math and science ability, and perceptions of adult support for science learning, tended not to link results to state science standards. Maheady et al. (2006) was the only exception. These researchers measured student attitudes toward a particular format of cooperative learning called Numbered Heads Together (NHT) with, and without, a behavioral incentive package. While the intervention was implemented using a standards-based science curriculum, the focus of the intervention was on the effectiveness of NHT. Every student, including ELLs, performed better on standards-based classroom assessments with some form of NHT, but the addition of the behavioral incentive had the greatest effect on scores. It also positively affected students’ attitudes toward science instruction. Two studies that focused on other forms of outcomes (Cuevas et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2006), namely the ability to conduct science inquiry tasks, were related to the same grant project that implemented a standards-aligned curriculum to directly teach inquiry processes. Over time, the students took a greater responsibility for performing inquiry tasks, after they had gained skills. Both studies (Cuevas et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2006) found that the inquiry skills of ELLs did increase after direct instruction. Lee et al. (2006) discovered that ELLs had some of the largest gains in their ability to perform inquiry tasks. However, students became more effective only on certain parts of the inquiry tasks, such as their abilities to support theories with data and controlling specific variables (e.g., amount of water used, the length of time and the location of an experiment). They continued to struggle with controlling other variables (e.g., the size and shape of containers, heat, location and length of time) (Lee et al., 2006). Lee et al. (2006) attributed some of the difficulty with inquiry-based learning to students’ cultural backgrounds and values. Although conducting scientific inquiry is a challenge for most students, it presents additional challenges for students from societies that may not encourage them to engage in some aspects of inquiry practices, such as asking empirical questions about natural phenomena, designing and implementing systematic investigations, and finding answers on their own…In many societies, cultural norms prioritize respect for teachers and other adults as authoritative sources of knowledge. In other words, validity of knowledge is often based on the validity of its source, rather than the validity of knowledge claims. Children who are taught to respect the wisdom and authority of their elders may not be encouraged to question received knowledge in ways that are compatible with Western scientific practices (Lee et al., 2006, p. 611) The researchers believed that developmental readiness to perform inquiry tasks was also a factor that caused 4th graders to perform better than 3rd graders in the study. Lee et al. (2006) provided an important implication for teaching inquiry science to ELLs. Furthermore, as student understanding of and skill with inquiry procedures grew, they often struggled to express that understanding with their developing English skills. The picture that emerged from these nine studies was that a handful of researchers examined ways to increase the grade-level standards-based science achievement of ELLs and language minority students. However, these students may still have performed below the level that was required to pass standards-based assessments and to graduate within a standards-based system. The studies did not provide much information on which to judge how far ELLs and language minority students have to go, and in what areas or aspects of science, to be successful. With limited and incomplete information it is difficult to use the research literature as a guide to plan instructional improvements. Given that there is so little research with clear data on state standards-based science outcomes specifically for ELLs and language minority students, perhaps the most important issues that arise from this review relate to the state of the field and recommendations for the future. These issues and recommendations are based on all 22 studies, not only those related to state standards. Relationship of Studies to Model Referring back to the Revised Theory of Educational Effectiveness under Standards-Based Reform in Figure 2, how did the studies reviewed match up to the elements of the figure? As Table 2 shows, the majority of reviewed studies addressed either student factors (n=13) such as attitudes, cultural background and language proficiency levels, or classroom factors (n=11), particularly curriculum implementation and associated teacher training. Four of the studies (Duran et al., 1998; Hampton et al., 2001; Lee et al., 2005; Lynch et al., 2002) examined factors at both the student and the classroom levels. Amaral et al. (2002) reported the effects of a science curriculum on students in an entire school district, and, for the purposes of this review, is included with the school level. Only one study (Rivera & Stansfield, 2003-2004) addressed national/local policy context factors in the form of a state test accommodation not commonly allowed in state testing policies. Table 2. Factors Addressed by Studies Reviewed
Because the intent of standards-based reform is to assist all students in achieving grade-level content by improving the quality of classroom conditions that support learning, an emphasis on classroom factors in the research literature seems important and appropriate. By focusing on the classroom, researchers have placed the responsibility for increasing student outcomes primarily on educators and schools, not on the students. Further studies on classroom factors are important. In addition, the 22 studies reviewed here also emphasize the role of student factors, such as attitude and motivation, in learning science. These studies illuminate the ways in which students are unique. They have different attitudes toward science, differing levels of support for science learning, and differing motivations to succeed in the science classroom. Differences are important to study so long as the emphasis remains on stimulating teachers to teach standards-based content differently in order to better meet student needs. Research Perspectives Relate to Outcomes Studied In a previous review of studies on science instruction for diverse students, Lee and Luykx (2007) reported that few studies provided concrete, quantitative outcomes (p. 177). One possible reason for this finding may be that many studies in the field come out of disciplinary traditions and theoretical or conceptual frameworks with non-cognitive types of emphases. Table 3 highlights that half of the total group of studies reviewed (n=11) fall into this category. The few studies in Table 3 that included cognitive outcomes, such as Bouchey (2004), also included other types of outcomes as well. Footnotes to the table describe terms used to refer to theoretical or conceptual frameworks, as used by article researchers. Two examples from the table provide illustrations of the way in which aligning research traditions with theoretical or conceptual frameworks, and thus with research questions, can lead to emphases on varying outcomes. First, Duran, Dugan, and Weffer (1998) chose to study science and language minority students from the perspective of social constructivism, which is associated with the tradition of social psychology. Duran et al. (1998) define social constructivism in the following way: Our research was conducted within the social constructivist framework of Vygotsky (1978, 1987), as extended by Wertsch (1991), which offers a theoretical perspective about the development of higher order mental functions and the interdependence of language and thought in learning….Wertsch (1991) uses the idea of ‘a social language as a meditational means’ to provide a dialogic account for the social nature of child learning…Learning occurs as children internalize the dialogues of their social interaction by gradually using these for their intention. (pp. 313-314)
Table 3. Research Perspectives of Studies Reviewed
Because this study focused on social speech as a mediator of individual student learning, as expressed through language, it is logical that the researchers collected interview and observational data on outcomes related to student production of meaning in classroom interactions. A second example of the way disciplinary traditions and theoretical or conceptual frameworks align with science outcomes can be found in Beghetto’s (2007) study. The researchers examined science through the perspective of Achievement Goal Theory, which comes out of the field of psychology. As Beghetto (2007) explained: This line of research suggests that although cognitive ability is important to success in science—ability alone is not enough. Indeed, students who otherwise have the ability to be successful in science, yet believe they are not capable of success, likely sell themselves and the field short. Students’ perceived science competence is related to students’ motivation to learn, future aspirations, and ultimately their achievement in science. (p. 800) As a result of this focus, Beghetto collected data on students’ perceived efficacy, perceived science competence, achievement goals, and perceived teacher support. Cognitive outcomes were not included in Beghetto’s study. Again, in the context of this particular disciplinary tradition and theoretical framework, outcomes relating to student attitudes and motivation make sense. The remaining studies reviewed focused solely on cognitive outcomes such as test scores and grades. Six of these studies, several from the same research project, incorporated test scores to measure the effectiveness of implementing new curricula (Amaral et al., 2002; Cuevas et al., 2005; Lee, Deaktor et al., 2008; Lee, Maerten-Rivera et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2006; Lee & Luykx, 2006). Studies like those of Duran et al. (1998) and Beghetto (2007) add richness to our understanding of the context of science outcomes. However, the model of educational effectiveness under standards-based reform (Figure 2) does emphasize standards-based cognitive outcomes as an end goal of instruction. Other types of outcomes may be important contributors to cognitive outcomes (e.g., levels of academic English proficiency, attitudes toward science), but these are not the end goal of instruction. Conclusion and Recommendations The results of this research review indicate that there is a small but growing research base that addresses science outcomes for language minority students and ELLs. The purpose of this review was to focus more specifically on what is known about outcomes related to state science standards for ELLs and language minority students. Of the 22 studies that addressed science outcomes for these students, many were related to either national science assessments or to national science standards. A smaller proportion was related to state standards. The small number of studies available combined with the diversity of topics studied and the multitude of viewpoints makes it difficult to distill findings from this body of literature. For example, theoretical and conceptual frameworks researchers chose for the larger group of studies influenced the way outcomes were conceptualized and measured. Some studies conceptualized outcomes in purely cognitive terms such as scores on tests, while others addressed affective or other types of outcomes. There were only nine studies linking science outcomes to state standards in some way. Four of these nine studies were based on an implementation of one inquiry-based science curriculum used in the same grant project (Lee et al., 2008b; Lee et al., 2008c; Lee et al., 2005; Luykx et al., 2007). It is not possible to state definitive research findings with such a small number of studies, but two ideas contained in those eight studies stand out for further consideration. First, scientific inquiry skills, which are often part of state science standards, are important to explicitly teach to language minority students and ELLs, but may be challenging for students to fully learn. Because of differing cultural backgrounds and different levels of English proficiency, educators should not assume that linguistically and culturally diverse students will implicitly have the knowledge or skills to perform inquiry tasks without being taught how to do so. A few studies in this review found that ELLs and language minority students did, in fact, perform significantly higher on inquiry-based tasks and test items after receiving instruction on the different inquiry elements plus scientific language. However, ELLs in particular still struggled with certain inquiry concepts and skills after the interventions. Second, curriculum-related interventions had differential effects for language minority students and ELLs. While ELLs displayed a great deal of growth in science learning after the implementation of these interventions, they still scored below their language minority peers on content-related assessments and inquiry tasks. Researchers observed that a sizeable gap in performance levels between ELLs and other students was still evident. One major challenge in summarizing science outcomes for linguistically and culturally diverse students is that the available literature did not state how far below grade-level standards the performance of ELLs and language minority students was. Both of these key points in the literature highlight the challenges inherent in teaching academic English language skills specific to science simultaneously with both science content knowledge and science processes in the mainstream classroom. ELLs and language minority students who have recently exited English as a Second Language services have to learn more knowledge and skills in order to achieve at grade level in the science classroom than do their native English speaking peers. The work of Lee and colleagues (Cuevas et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2008a; Lee et al., 2008b, Lee et al., 2008c; Lee et al., 2006; Lee et al., 2005) highlighted the need to incorporate scientific language instruction into the teaching of scientific inquiry skills while also focusing on content acquisition. It is vitally important to conduct more studies of this kind relating content, language, and skill integration in the science classroom. Considering the extremely small number of studies relating specifically to standards-based science outcomes for ELLs and language minority students, the strongest statements that can be made about the 22 studies reviewed relate to current emphases in the field of science education for linguistically and culturally diverse students and possible research directions. 1. The types of standards-related cognitive outcomes measures used and the way results were reported did not allow for clear identification of how well or how poorly language minority students performed in science. Standards-related outcomes were typically associated with cognitive measures such as tests or grades. Test scores were not necessarily from (state) standards-based tests and may not have been associated with science tests at all. A few studies included measures of math and literacy as possible outcomes. Researcher-developed assessments that related to standards-aligned curriculum were common, but the studies frequently did not report linkages to state standards in detail. In several studies, gains in science learning as measured by tests were reported, but whether students met state standards was not reported. In still other studies data were not necessarily disaggregated to show the performance of ELLs and language minority students in the study sample. The field could benefit greatly from more studies incorporating cognitive measures of standards-based science learning, with clearly disaggregated data for linguistically and culturally diverse students, and specific indications of how far these students have to go to meet grade-level standards. Specific knowledge in this area could help educators and policymakers plan effective programming and choose the best standards-based and instructional practices for students. 2. The influence of standards-based teaching and learning on study participants was not explicitly acknowledged as a contextual factor in research studies. The majority of the 22 studies reviewed involved students who received (state) standards-based instruction in their daily lives at school or teachers who taught standards-aligned science curricula. Yet this influence on the research was often not explicitly acknowledged or considered, particularly in studies of student factors associated with science outcomes. Greater contextualization of studies and more direct links to standards-based instruction are needed. Findings from studies that report affective or other types of outcomes, as well as those that report cognitive outcomes, could be strengthened by this more nuanced approach. 3. Most of the studies reviewed focused on either student-level factors associated with science outcomes (see Figure 2) or classroom-level factors. Few, if any, studies examined school-level factors or state and local policy factors and their relationship to science outcomes for ELLs and language minority students. In addition, only a handful of studies linked together factors from across levels (see Figure 2) to explain how multiple levels within the education system interact to play a role in student outcomes. Teachers make instructional decisions within the context of decisions that have already been made at other levels (Creemers & Kyriakides, 2008). Teachers also may make different instructional decisions depending on the unique characteristics of the students in their classrooms at any given time. Studies linking the various levels represented in Figure 2 would help educators, policymakers, and researchers better understand the complexities inherent in teaching linguistically and culturally diverse students. At this point in time, the research literature simply does not provide enough information about state standards-based science outcomes for ELLs and language minority students to guide educational improvement efforts. This lack of research may be, in part, because state accountability for standards-based science outcomes, in the form of mandatory statewide achievement tests, is relatively new. Policymakers, educators, and researchers are just beginning to turn their attention to the instructional implications of standards-based science assessment scores for all students and largely have not yet begun to focus on outcomes for ELLs and language minority students. Nevertheless, the available research suggests some promising directions for future research efforts. References Amaral, O., Garrison, L., & Klentschy, M. (2002). Helping English language learners increase achievement through inquiry-based science instruction. Bilingual Research Journal, 26(2), 213-239. Beghetto, R. (2007). 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Available: http://ejse.southwestern.edu/original%20site/manuscripts/v6n3/articles/art04_torres/torres.pdf Varelas, M., Pappas, C., Kane, J., Arsenault, A., Hankes, J., & Cowan, B. (2007). Urban primary-grade children think and talk science: Curricular and instructional practices that nurture participation and argumentation. Science Education, 65-95. Appendix A Studies Reviewed
Appendix B Study Outcomes and their Relationship to State Standards
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